Recent reviews of plant–pollinator mutualistic networks showed that generalization is a common pattern in this type of interaction. Here we examine the ecological correlates of generalization patterns in plant–pollinator networks, especially how interaction patterns covary with latitude, elevation, and insularity. We review the few published analyses of whole networks and include unpublished material, analyzing 29 complete plant–pollinator networks that encompass arctic, alpine, temperate, Mediterranean, and subtropical–tropical areas. The number of interactions observed (I) was a linear function of network size (M) the maximum number of interactions: ln I = 0.575 + 0.61 ln M; R2 = 0.946. The connectance (C), the fraction of observed interactions relative to the total possible, decreased exponentially with species richness, the sum of animal and plant species in each community (A + P): C = 13.83 exp[−0.003(A + P)]. After controlling for species richness, the residual connectance was significantly lower in highland (>1500 m elevation) than in lowland networks and differed marginally among biogeographic regions, with both alpine and tropical networks showing a trend for lower residual connectance. The two Mediterranean networks showed the highest residual connectance. After correcting for variation in network size, plant species were shown to be more generalized at higher latitude and lowland habitats, but showed increased specialization on islands. Oceanic island networks showed an impoverishment of potential animal pollinators (lower ratio of animal to plant species, A : P, compared to mainland networks) associated with this trend of increased specialization. Plants, but not their flower‐visiting animals, supported the often‐repeated statements about higher specificity in the tropics than at higher latitudes. The pattern of interaction build‐up as diversity increases in pollination networks does not differ appreciably from other mutualisms, such as plant–seed disperser networks or more complex food webs.

Recent reviews of seed dispersal and frugivore ecology show that, for most frugivores, fleshy fruits are a non-exclusive food resource that is supplemented with animal prey,

Recently, there has been a vigorous interest in community ecology about the structure of mutualistic networks and its importance for species persistence and coevolution. However, the mechanisms shaping mutualistic networks have been rarely explored. Here we extend for the first time the neutral theory of biodiversity to a multi trophic system. We focus on nestedness, a distinctive pattern of mutualistic community assembly showing two characteristics, namely, asymmetrical specialization (specialists interacting with generalists) and a generalist core (generalists interacting with generalists). We investigate the importance of relative species abundance (RSA) for the nested assembly of plantÁanimal mutualistic networks. Our results show that neutral mutualistic communities give rise to networks considerably more nested than real communities. RSA explains 60Á70% of nested patterns in two real communities studied here, while 30Á40% of nestedness is still unexplained. The nested pattern in real communities is better explained when we introduce interactionspecific species traits such as forbidden links and intensity of dependence (relative importance of fruits for the diet of a frugivore) in our analysis. The fact that neutral mutualistic communities exhibit a perfectly nested structure and do not show a random or compartmentalized structure, underlines the importance of RSA in the assembly of mutualistic networks.

Abstract. The data set provided here includes 8,320 frugivory interactions (records of pairwise interactions between plant and frugivore species) reported for the Atlantic Forest. The data set includes interactions between 331 vertebrate species (232 birds, 90 mammals, 5 fishes, 1 amphibian, and 3 reptiles) and 788 plant species. We also present information on traits directly related to the frugivory process (endozoochory), such as the size of fruits and seeds and the body mass and gape size of frugivores. Data were extracted from 166 published and unpublished sources spanning from 1961 to 2016. While this is probably the most comprehensive data set available for a tropical ecosystem, it is arguably taxonomically and geographically biased. The plant families better represented are Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae, Urticaceae, and Solanaceae. Myrsine coriacea, Alchornea glandulosa, Cecropia pachystachya, and Trema micrantha are the plant species with the most animal dispersers (83, 76, 76, and 74 species, respectively). Among the animal taxa, the highest number of interactions is reported for birds (3,883) followed by mammals (1,315). The woolly spider monkey or muriqui, Brachyteles arachnoides, and Rufous-bellied Thrush, Turdus rufiventris, are the frugivores with the most diverse fruit diets (137 and 121 plants species, respectively). The most important general patterns that we note are that larger seeded plant species (>12 mm) are mainly eaten by terrestrial mammals (rodents, ungulates, primates, and carnivores) and that birds are the main consumers of fruits with a high concentration of lipids. Our data set is geographically biased, with most interactions recorded for the southeast Atlantic Forest.

Spatial and temporal predictability in the mutual selective pressures of plants and frugivorous birds is a prerequisite for coevolution to occur. I examine the interaction patterns of strongly frugivorous thrushes (Turdus spp.) and their major winter food plants (Juniperus spp., Cupressaceae) and how they vary in space and time. Spatial congruency, rarely considered in seed dispersal studies, is studied at three spatial scales: I) the total species range; 2) regional distribution; and 3) local abundance and its variation between seasons. Southern Spanish frugivorous thrushes and junipers show very low congruence in distribution patterns at each of these scales. Most juniper species show geographic distributions that are nested within the geographic ranges of thrush species. Bird species showed greater habitat breadth values than plants and were found in a greater percentage of localities. The local bird abundance was strongly correlated across years and sites with the local availability of juniper cones. Cone production varied markedly between years, but the rankings for different species in different years were statistically concordant at mid-elevation and lowland sites. Both bird abundance and cone production showed greater temporal than spatial variability. Variation of cone productions at both temporal and spatial scales was greater than variability in bird abundance. Species with strong interactions of mutual dependence showed very low values of biogeographic congruence, caused by differences in geographic range and habitat specificity. This obviously limits the possibilities for pairwise, specific coevolution to occur. However, mutual effects of species groups are possible to the extent that the component species are ecologically 'interchangeable' in their selective effects and other constraints on coevolution are not operating. The approach used here to examine the patterns of species interactions at different biogeographic scales might prove useful in comparative studies of plant-animal interactions.

This chapter presents the characteristics of fleshy-fruited plants in the Pantanal (Central Brazil) and describes the contributions of different animal guilds to seed dispersal. Fruits traits in the Pantanal are compared with those in the Atlantic rain forest (Brazil), in a mosaic of forest and savannah in Africa (Ivory Coast), and in an African wetland (Okavango, Botswana) to test similarities in fruit size, colour and shape. It discusses some potential ecological mechanisms that contribute to plant population persistence after the extinction of major seed dispersers and argues based on numerical simulations that for some long-live plants, there is a possibility that minimal recruitment events allow populations to persist.

This chapter reviews some existing approaches to the study of seed dispersal and presents a brief discussion of the population projected matrix models which are commonly used in plant demographic studies. Empirical data are used to illustrate the idea and the possible benefits and disadvantages of the empirical approach to analysing the demographic consequences of seed dispersal (of Neobuxbaumia tetetzo) by frugivores (e.g. birds and bats) are discussed. It argues that matrix population models can incorporate the necessary elements of analysis to clearly integrate the effects of frugivore activity on plant population dynamics.

This chapter analyses the main components of seed shadows (spatial distributions of all seeds dispersed from an individual plant) and discusses how hypervariable molecular markers can be used to assess them and the advantages and disadvantages involved in doing so. It presents a brief discussion of seed shadow analysis, some illustrative data with Prunus mahaleb, and an analysis of perspectives to link frugivore foraging and seed shadow patterns.