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Abstract:This cross-sectional study tested the hypothesis that future time perspective moderates the association between forgivingness and subjective well-being. Results from a sample of adults (N = 962, 19-84 years) indicate that time perspective and forgivingness were strongly associated with positive affect, life satisfaction and optimism. In support of the hypothesis, forgivingness was more strongly associated with positive well-being for those who perceived their future time as limited as compared to those with an open-ended time perspective. The moderating effect of future time perspective holds over and above the effect of chronological age. Moderating effects were not found for negative affect and pessimism. The results underscore the importance of perceived time horizons for the interplay between forgivingness and well-being.

The present study investigated age and gender differences in forgiveness of real-life transgressions. Emerging and young, middle-aged, and older adults recalled the most recent and serious interpersonal transgression and then completed the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Inventory (TRIM-18), which measured their avoidance, revenge, and benevolence motivation toward an offender and indicated to what extent they are generally concerned with the subject of forgiveness. The results revealed a trend among middle-aged adults to express more avoidance than younger adults. Moreover, young men had a greater motivation to seek revenge than middle-aged and older men. No such age differences were apparent for women. Additionally, forgiveness was a more manifest subject in everyday life for middle-aged adults and women. These findings emphasize the importance of age and gender when investigating forgiveness.

The underlying biological mechanism of prenatal stress in humans is poorly understood, but maternal cortisol (F) excess seems to play an important role. In pregnant rats, acute stress causes an up-regulation of placental 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2), an enzyme present throughout the body (e.g., placenta, salivary glands) that inactivates F to cortisone (E), thereby protecting the fetus from maternal F overexposure. Whether acute stress influences human 11β-HSD2 is unclear. We aimed to explore the association between the maternal stress reactivity and amniotic fluid F, E, and the E/(E + F) ratio as a marker of fetoplacental 11β-HSD2. The predictive value of all markers for birth outcome was investigated. We examined 34 healthy pregnant women undergoing amniocentesis, which served as a standardized, real-life stressor. F, E, and E/(E + F) were determined from a single aliquot of amniotic fluid, and from saliva samples collected repeatedly. Subjects filled out state questionnaires repeatedly and were re-examined in a control condition after notification of a normal amniocentesis result. During amniocentesis, psychological stress, salivary F (SalF), and salivary E (SalE) increased significantly, whereas SalE/(E + F) decreased. The SalF reactivity was positively associated with amniotic E, while SalE/(E + F) was inversely associated with amniotic E/(E + F). SalF and SalE predicted lower and SalE/(E + F) higher birth weight. Psychological and amniotic fluid variables were unrelated to birth outcome. Findings indicate that maternal F is inactivated to E in the human fetoplacental unit during acute stress. Increased 11β-HSD2 activity within the maternal salivary glands following acute stress may mirror further stress protective mechanisms worthwhile investigating.

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