Universals are usually considered to be universal properties. Since tropes are particular properties, if there are only tropes, there are no universals. However, universals might be thought of not only as common properties, but also as common aspects (''determinable universals'') and common wholes (''concrete universals''). The existence of these two latter concepts of universals is fully compatible with the assumption that all properties are particular. This observation makes possible three different trope theories, which accept tropes and no universals, tropes and determinable universals and tropes and concrete universals.
JAN PAWEŁ II O MĘCZENNIKACH "Świadectwo męczeńskie tych, którzy za wiarę i chrześcijańskie zasady życia przyjęli cierpienie i męki oraz odważnie ponieśli śmierć, od początku, przez całe wieki dodawało Kościołowi duchowej siły i mocy"1-pisał Jan Paweł II w liście apostolskim Rutilans agmen [dalej: RA]. Świadomość niezastąpionej roli, jaką odgrywają w Kościele męczennicy, kierowała Janem Pawłem II, którego pontyfikat stał się czasem nadzwyczajnego wzrostu liczby świętych oraz błogosławionych Kościoła. Męczennicy zajmują znaczące miejsce wśród 1338 beatyfikowanych i 482 kanonizowanych przez papieża osób. W gronie tych, którzy zostali wyniesieni podczas pontyfikatu Jana Pawła II na ołtarze, znajduje się 1031 błogosławionych i 402 świętych męczenników2. Ich beatyfikacje oraz kanonizacje najczęściej były zbiorowe3. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje fakt, że wszystkim beatyfikacjom oraz kanonizacjom Jan Paweł II przewodniczył osobiście. Doktryna papieska na temat męczenników zawiera się w całym nauczaniu Jana Pawła II. W sposób szczególny wybrzmiewa ona jednak w beatyfikacyjnych i kanonizacyjnych homiliach, wygłoszonych na cześć męczenników podczas uroczystości wyniesienia ich do chwały ołtarzy.
Essential properties are usually thought as properties that things must always possess, whereas accidental properties are considered as changeable. In this paper, we challenge this traditional view. We argue that in some important cases, such as social or biological development, we face not only the change of accidents, but also the change of essences. To analyze this kind of change we propose an alternative view on the relations between the modalities and time. Some properties might be necessary or possible for a thing in a classical sense throughout its existence, whereas others might be necessary or possible only for some restricted periods. We distinguish therefore absolute, prospective, retrospective, and relative modalities. As we argue, these non-classical concepts of modality are useful in analysis of some puzzling case of seemingly changing essences.
Semen Frank (1877-1950 was one of the first and most ardent advocates of the ontological argument in the twentieth century. He proposed an original interpretation of the ontological argument based on its analogy to Descartes' Cogito. Frank believed that it is possible to develop Cogito ergo sum into Cogito ergo est ens absolutum. In this paper, I analyze his version of the ontological argument. First, I propose a simple reconstruction of his reasoning, paying attention to its hidden premise. Second, departing from the classical logical interpretations of Descartes' argument, I show that for Frank the claim that God exists had the same logical properties as Cogito. As a result, it seems that his argument was formally correct, though based on a premise which could hardly be convincing for a non-believer. This should not be surprising, however, since Frank, as most Russian religious philosophers, was not interested in the project of philosophical theology. His main concern was rather the development of philosophy based on religious premises, which might be called "theological philosophy".
The discussion about internal and external relations usually concerns what kind of relations exist. In this paper, I take up another question, namely whether external relations can become internal and internal relations become external. My starting point is the concept of a "relational collapse" formulated by the Soviet and Ukrainian philosopher Avenir Uemov. I try to develop his idea, distinguishing two senses of internal relation, based on the concepts of ground and essence. As I argue, internalisation may consist either on groundation or essentialisation of relations. Contrary to Uemov, both of these processes seem to be reversible, so we should also introduce the concepts of ungroundation and accidentalisation of relations. These four concepts form a framework for the general theory of internalisation and externalisation of relations. This framework seems to be particularly useful in analysis of some problems in social ontology.
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