This study examines two recently proposed methods for predicting nose projection from the skull, those developed by Stephan et al. (Am J Phys Anthropol 122, 2003, 240) and Rynn et al. (Forensic Sci Med Pathol 6, 2010, 20). A sample of 86 lateral head cephalograms of adult subjects from Central Europe was measured, and the actual and predicted dimensions were compared. Regarding nose projection (the anterior and vertical position of the pronasale), in general, the method of Rynn et al. (Forensic Sci Med Pathol 6, 2010, 20) was found to perform better and with less error variance than the method of Stephan et al. (Am J Phys Anthropol 122, 2003, 240), but the mean difference between the actual and predicted values did not exceed 2.2 mm (6.5% of the actual dimension) in most of the variables tested. The vertical dimensions of the nose were predictable with greater accuracy than the horizontal dimensions. Although the mean error of both methods is not great in practice and thus both methods could be considered to be "accurate," the real variance of error should not be overlooked.
The objective of this study was to create a real model of a face using the well preserved "Bochdalek's skull" (from an eighteenth Century female aged 18 years) kept in the museum of anatomy (Institute of Anatomy, 1st Medical Faculty, Charles University in Prague). The skull had previously been appraised as a deformed skull with an adhesion present on both sides of the jaw, most likely of post-traumatic origin (bilateral syngnathia). In an attempt to find the best description for it, and to identify the spatial relationships between the surface of the facial bones which had changed in shape, as well as the formation of soft tissue on the face, we decided to perform a 3D reconstruction of the face. Due to the necessity of preserving the unique original undamaged skull, we created an exact digital "casting" of the facial bone structure on a computer first, which we then converted into a three-dimensional model using a 3D RepRap printer. We needed to take into consideration the fact that we had no portrait of the girl, just the skull. For this reason, we opted for a selected combination of anthropologic steps (the modified Manchester technique), which in our view, allows for optimum creation of the topography of the face in keeping with the deformed skull. The resulting reconstructed face was old in appearance with an overhanging lower lip and flattened surfaces in the areas of the temporalis and masseter muscles.
This study examined several methods used to estimate oral fissure position, lip margin position, and lip thickness recommended by Angel, George, Lebedinskaya, Taylor, Wilkinson et al., Balueva and Veselovskaya. A sample of 86 lateral head cephalograms of adult subjects from central Europe were measured and the actual and predicted dimensions were compared. The best estimation for oral fissure position was "opposite the lower ¾ mark of maxillary incisors" (error of 1.3 mm). Upper lip margin was predicted best by "upper ¼ mark of maxillary incisors" (error of 1.7 mm), and lower lip margin by "cementum-enamel junction of mandibular incisors" (error of 2.3 mm). The regression equations of Wilkinson et al. displayed least error (1.3 mm and 1.8 mm, respectively) for upper and lower lip thickness, and method of George (error of 3.4 mm) for total lip thickness.
This study measured the accuracy of traditional and validated newly proposed methods for globe positioning in lateral view.Eighty lateral head cephalograms of adult subjects from Central Europe were taken, and the actual and predicted dimensions were compared. The anteroposterior eyeball position was estimated as the most accurate method based on the proportion of the orbital height (SEE = 1.9 mm) and was followed by the "tangent to the iris method" showing SEE = 2.4 mm. The traditional "tangent to the cornea method" underestimated the eyeball projection by SEE = 5.8 mm. Concerning the superoinferior eyeball position, the results showed a deviation from a central to a more superior position by 0.3 mm, on average, and the traditional method of central positioning of the globe could not be rejected as inaccurate (SEE = 0.3 mm). Based on regression analyzes or proportionality of the orbital height, the SEE = 2.1 mm.KEYWORDS: forensic science, facial approximation, facial reconstruction, soft-tissue prediction, eyeball position, accuracy test, head cephalograms The morphological and structural features of the orbital region play important roles in facial recognition. Correct recognition is the ultimate goal of facial approximation. Positioning of the eyeball within the orbit is one of the first steps in any facial approximation, and it is assessed in the process of evaluating the degree of match between a skull and an antemortem photograph in superimposition. Globe location in the mediolateral and superoinferior directions influences facial proportions. Individuals are very sensitive to perception of eye displacement within these directions, while recognizing familiar faces (1,2). The globe projection (i.e., the location in the anteroposterior direction) relative to the orbital rims tends to influence the morphology of the eyelids and gives an impression of deep set/narrow eyes or bulging/wide eyes.The method of facial approximation depends on accurate anatomical understanding of soft tissue relationships with the skull. The accuracy of many facial prediction rules was reviewed, reevaluated, or additionally found (e.g., ref. n. 3 for superciliare position; 4-6 for pronasale position; 7-10 for lip size and position; and 11 for ear size and morphology), and new prediction guidelines based on empirical findings were proposed (e.g., 4,5,7,11-13). Prediction guidelines for globe locations have also been recently discussed. According to traditional rules, the eyeball is positioned centrally within the orbit in the frontal view (i.e., the apex of the cornea corresponded to the midpoint of the orbital height and orbital breadth), and by placing the cornea tangent to a line connecting the midpoints of the superior and inferior margins of the orbit in the anteroposterior direction (e.g., 14-16), herein referred to as the "tangent to the cornea method", Fig. 1a). These guidelines were first rejected as inaccurate by Stephan (17) who reviewed the exophthalmometry reports; the inaccuracy was proven by cadaver-based stu...
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