The aims of this
study were two-fold: (1) to improve our understanding
of the thermal stability of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and
(2) to investigate their decomposition mechanisms on spent granular
activated carbon (GAC) during thermal reactivation. We studied seven
perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), three perfluoroalkyl sulfonic
acids (PFSAs), and one perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acid (PFECA)
in different atmospheres (N2, O2, CO2, and air). The destabilization of studied compounds during thermal
treatment followed first-order kinetics. The temperature needed for
thermally destabilizing PFCAs increased with the number of perfluorinated
carbons (n
CF2). Decomposition of PFCAs
such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) on GAC initiated at temperatures
as low as 200 °C. The PFECA was even more readily decomposed
than PFCA with the same n
CF2. PFSAs such
as perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), on the other hand, required
a much higher temperature (≥450 °C) to decompose. Volatile
organofluorine species were the main thermal decomposition product
of PFOA and PFOS at low to moderate temperatures (≤600 °C).
Efficient mineralization to fluoride ions (>80%) of PFOA and PFOS
on GAC occurred at 700 °C or higher, accompanied by near complete
PFOA and PFOS decomposition (>99.9%). Thermal decomposition pathways
of PFOA were proposed.
In
this study, we investigated thermal decomposition mechanisms
of cationic, zwitterionic, and anionic polyfluoroalkyl substances,
including those present in aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) samples.
We present novel evidence that polyfluoroalkyl substances gave quantitative
yields of perfluoroalkyl substances of different chain lengths during
thermal treatment. The results support a radical-mediated transformation
mechanism involving random-chain scission and end-chain scission,
leading to the formation of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids such as
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from certain polyfluoroalkyl amides
and sulfonamides. Our results also support a direct thermal decomposition
mechanism (chain stripping) on the nonfluorinated moiety of polyfluoroalkyl
sulfonamides, resulting in the formation of perfluorooctanesulfonic
acid (PFOS) and other structurally related polyfluoroalkyl compounds.
Thermal decomposition of 8:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate occurred through
end-chain scission and recombination reactions, successively yielding
PFOS. All of the studied polyfluoroalkyl substances began to degrade
at 200–300 °C, exhibiting near-complete decomposition
at ≥400 °C. Using a high-resolution parent ion search
method, we demonstrated for the first time that low-temperature thermal
treatments of AFFF samples led to the generation of anionic fluoroalkyl
substances, including perfluoroheptanesulfonamide, 8:2 fluorotelomer
sulfonic acid, N-methyl perfluorooctane sulfonamide,
and a previously unreported compound N-2-propenyl-perfluorohexylsulfonamide.
This study provides key insights into the fate of polyfluoroalkyl
substances in thermal processes.
In
this study, we found that thermal decomposition of per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soil was rapid at moderate temperatures
of 400–500 °C, regardless of whether the soil was contaminated
by a single PFAS compound or a PFAS mixture in aqueous film-forming
foams. Substantial degradation (>99%) of PFAS in soil, including
perfluorooctanoic
acid (PFOA), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), short-chain homologues,
cationic and zwitterionic precursors, and PFOA and PFOS alternatives,
occurred in 30 min at 500 °C in both a sealed reactor in air
and a horizontal reactor under a continuous flow of N2.
The effect of the initial PFAS level in soil (0.001–10 μmol/g)
and soil texture was insignificant, provided a sufficiently high temperature
was applied. Furthermore, this study showed, for the first time, that
kaolinite dramatically decreased the apparent yield of F from PFAS
heated at >300 °C, likely due to the chemisorption of F radicals
on kaolinite. This phenomenon was not observed when kaolinite and
an inorganic fluoride salt (NaF) were thermally treated. Lastly, various
nonpolar thermal degradation products of PFOA and PFOS were reported
for the first time. The profile of fluorinated volatiles, particularly
perfluoroalkenes, was similar between these two chemicals. The results
support a radical-mediated degradation pathway of PFAS.
In this study, we have developed
an innovative thermal degradation
strategy for treating per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-containing
solid materials. Our strategy satisfies three criteria: the ability
to achieve near-complete degradation of PFASs within a short timescale,
nonselectivity, and low energy cost. In our method, a metallic reactor
containing a PFAS-laden sample was subjected to electromagnetic induction
that prompted a rapid temperature rise of the reactor via the Joule
heating effect. We demonstrated that subjecting PFASs (0.001–12
μmol) to induction heating for a brief duration (e.g., <40
s) resulted in substantial degradation (>90%) of these compounds,
including recalcitrant short-chain PFASs and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic
acids. This finding prompted us to conduct a detailed study of the
thermal phase transitions of PFASs using thermogravimetric analysis
and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). We identified at least
two endothermic DSC peaks for anionic, cationic, and zwitterionic
PFASs, signifying the melting and evaporation of the melted PFASs.
Melting and evaporation points of many PFASs were reported for the
first time. Our data suggest that the rate-limiting step in PFAS thermal
degradation is linked with phase transitions (e.g., evaporation) occurring
on different time scales. When PFASs are rapidly heated to temperatures
similar to those produced during induction heating, the evaporation
of melted PFAS slows down, allowing for the degradation of the melted
PFAS.
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