MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are stable, small non-coding RNAs that modulate many downstream target genes. Recently, circulating miRNAs have been detected in various body fluids and within exosomes, prompting their evaluation as candidate biomarkers of diseases, especially cancer. Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common AIDS-associated cancer and remains prevalent despite Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART). KS is caused by KS-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), a gamma herpesvirus also associated with Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL). We sought to determine the host and viral circulating miRNAs in plasma, pleural fluid or serum from patients with the KSHV-associated malignancies KS and PEL and from two mouse models of KS. Both KSHV-encoded miRNAs and host miRNAs, including members of the miR-17–92 cluster, were detectable within patient exosomes and circulating miRNA profiles from KSHV mouse models. Further characterization revealed a subset of miRNAs that seemed to be preferentially incorporated into exosomes. Gene ontology analysis of signature exosomal miRNA targets revealed several signaling pathways that are known to be important in KSHV pathogenesis. Functional analysis of endothelial cells exposed to patient-derived exosomes demonstrated enhanced cell migration and IL-6 secretion. This suggests that exosomes derived from KSHV-associated malignancies are functional and contain a distinct subset of miRNAs. These could represent candidate biomarkers of disease and may contribute to the paracrine phenotypes that are a characteristic of KS.

Although oxidative tissue injury often accompanies viral infection, there is little understanding of how it influences virus replication. We show that multiple hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes are exquisitely sensitive to oxidative membrane damage, a property distinguishing them from other pathogenic RNA viruses. Lipid peroxidation, regulated in part through sphingosine kinase 2, severely restricts HCV replication in Huh-7 cells and primary human hepatoblasts. Endogenous oxidative membrane damage lowers the 50% effective concentration of direct-acting antivirals, suggesting critical regulation of the conformation of the NS3/4A protease and NS5B polymerase, membrane-bound HCV replicase components. Resistance to lipid peroxidation maps genetically to trans-membrane and membrane-proximal residues within these proteins, and is essential for robust replication in cell culture, as exemplified by the atypical JFH1 strain. Thus, the typical, wild-type HCV replicase is uniquely regulated by lipid peroxidation, providing a novel mechanism for attenuating replication in stressed tissue and possibly facilitating long-term viral persistence.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs that post-transcriptionally influence a wide range of cellular processes such as the host response to viral infection, innate immunity, cell cycle progression, migration and apoptosis through the inhibition of target mRNA translation. Due to the growing number of microRNAs and identification of their functional roles, miRNA profiling of many different sample types has become more expansive, especially with relevance to disease signatures. Here, we address some of the advantages and potential pitfalls of the currently available methods for miRNA expression profiling. Some of the topics discussed include isomiRNAs, comparison of different profiling platforms, normalization strategies and issues with regard to sample preparation and experimental analyses.

Since HIV-1 infected macrophages display highly elevated Akt activity, our results collectively show that PI3K/Akt inhibitors may be a novel therapy for interfering with the establishment of long-living HIV-1 infected reservoirs.

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Rationale: Neutrophils are usually the first circulating leukocytes to respond during bacterial pneumonia. Their expression of oxidants, proteases, and other mediators present in granules is well documented, but their ability to produce mediators through transcription and translation after migration to an inflammatory site has been appreciated only more recently. Interferon (IFN)-g is a cytokine with many functions important in host defense and immunity. Objectives: To examine the expression and function of IFN-g in bacterial pneumonias. Methods: IFN-g mRNA and protein were measured in digests of mouse lungs with 24-hour bacterial pneumonia. Bacterial clearance was studied with IFN-g-deficient mice. Measurements and Main Results: Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus each induce expression of IFN-g mRNA and protein by neutrophils by 24 hours. Only neutrophils that have migrated into pneumonic tissue produce IFN-g. Deficiency of Hck/ Fgr/Lyn, Rac2, or gp91 phox prevents IFN-g production. IFN-g enhances bacterial clearance and is required for formation of neutrophil extracellular traps. In contrast, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli induce production of IFN-g mRNA but not protein.During pneumonia induced by E. coli but not S. pneumoniae, neutrophils produce microRNAs that target the 39 untranslated region of the IFN-g gene. Conclusions: S. pneumoniae and S. aureus, but not P. aeruginosa and E. coli, induce emigrated neutrophils to produce IFN-g within 24 hours. Hck/Fgr/Lyn, Rac2, and NADPH oxidase are required for IFN-g production. IFN-g facilitates bacterial clearance at least in part through regulating formation of neutrophil extracellular traps. Differential expression by neutrophils of microRNAs that target the 39 untranslated region of the IFN-g gene may contribute to the pathogen-specific regulation of translation.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) has been shown to be recognized by two families of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs). Here we show that MAVS and RIG-I (retinoic acid-inducible gene 1), an RLR family member, also have a role in suppressing KSHV replication and production. In the context of primary infection, we show that in cells with depleted levels of MAVS or RIG-I, KSHV transcription is increased, while beta interferon (IFN-␤) induction is attenuated. We also observed that MAVS and RIG-I are critical during the process of reactivation. Depletion of MAVS and RIG-I prior to reactivation led to increased viral load and production of infectious virus. Finally, MAVS depletion in latent KSHV-infected B cells leads to increased viral gene transcription. Overall, this study suggests a role for MAVS and RIG-I signaling during different stages of the KSHV life cycle. IMPORTANCEWe show that RIG-I and its adaptor protein, MAVS, can sense KSHV infection and that these proteins can suppress KSHV replication following primary infection and/or viral reactivation.

MicroRNAs (miRNA) have emerged as key regulators of cell lineage differentiation and cancer. We used precursor miRNA profiling by a novel real-time QPCR method (i) to define progressive stages of endothelial cell transformation cumulating in Kaposi sarcoma (KS) and (ii) to identify specific miRNAs that serve as biomarkers for tumor progression. We were able to compare primary patient biopsies to well-established culture and mouse tumor models. Loss of mir-221 and gain of mir-15 expression demarked the transition from merely immortalized to fully tumorigenic endothelial cells. Mir-140 and Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpesvirus viral miRNAs increased linearly with the degree of transformation. Mir-24 emerged as a biomarker specific for KS.