The online training had a positive impact on the implementation of the brief intervention. Online education on smoking cessation is feasible and effective in improving smoking cessation interventions in these countries.
This paper describes the global distribution and temporal evolution of bovine brucellosis due to Brucella abortus during a 19‐year period (1996–2014) using the information officially reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) by veterinary services of 156 countries. Variables that can influence the health status of bovine brucellosis (i.e., year, per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), continent and bovine population) were also analysed. Countries were classified into three categories of health situations: ENZOOTIC: countries infected, which may have been free of brucellosis but for periods of fewer than 3 years; NON‐ENZOOTIC: countries where the disease was present but that had at least a 3‐year period without the disease; and FREE: countries where the disease remained absent during the whole period. The countries free from bovine brucellosis, or in the process of eradication, were located in Oceania and Europe, while the more affected regions were Central and South America, Africa and parts of Asia. Among the Non‐Enzootic countries, the results showed that a very high proportion managed to control the disease during the period of study, with a sharp decline in the percentage of infected countries from 71% in 1996 to 10% in 2014. Among the Enzootic countries, a much smaller proportion managed to control the disease, with a slight drop in the percentage of infected countries from 92% in 1996 to 80% in 2014. A relationship was found between the status of the disease and the availability of economic resources; thus, countries with a high GDP per capita tended to be free from bovine brucellosis. On the other hand, countries with a larger bovine population showed a greater probability to have the disease present. An increase in surveillance programmes and implementation of control policies were observed during the period of study.
The expanding international wildlife trade, combined with a lack of surveillance for key animal diseases in most countries, represents a potential pathway for transboundary disease movement. While the international wildlife trade represents over US $300 billion per year industry involving exchange of billions of individual animals, animal products, and plants as traditional medicines, meat from wild animals, trophies, live exotic pets, commercial products and food, surveillance and reporting of OIE‐Listed diseases in wildlife are often opportunistic. We reviewed peer‐reviewed literature for reports of 73 OIE‐Listed terrestrial animal diseases in wild animals and found 528 possible wild animal hosts using our methodology. Not all host–pathogen relationships indicate that a particular species serves an epidemiologically significant role in the transmission of disease, but improved reporting of infections in wild animals along with clinical and pathological findings would contribute to improved One Health risk assessments.
Only two international organisations have a global legal framework that allows them to request, collect, and release global animal or human health information: the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global animal health situation, and the World Health Organization (WHO), which is responsible for transparently assessing the global human health situation. Legal instruments bind OIE Member Countries and WHO States Parties (OIE's Standards and WHO's International Health Regulations [IHR]) to report certain disease outbreaks and public health events to their respective organisations. OIE Member Countries must report exceptional epidemiological events involving any OIE-listed diseases, including zoonoses. Moreover, they must notify the OIE of any emerging animal diseases. The IHR require WHO Member States to provide notification of events that may constitute a public health emergency of international concern. These include, but are not restricted to, outbreaks of communicable diseases of international concern. In both organisations, in addition to reporting outbreaks and exceptional events, Members also monitor diseases on an ongoing basis and provide regular reports. To complement these passive surveillance mechanisms, the OIE, WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations track signals from informal sources of outbreaks of animal and zoonotic infectious diseases, thereby increasing the sensitivity of worldwide disease reporting. The formal information collected is disseminated to Members and the general public through various communication channels, so that countries can apply science-based measures to prevent further disease spread. Both the OIE and WHO reporting systems are supported by a range of coordinating activities to ensure the proper flow of information between national and international levels.
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