-Species within the genus, Campylobacter, have emerged over the last three decades as significant clinical pathogens, particularly of human public health concern, where the majority of acute bacterial enteritis in the Western world is due to these organisms. Of particular concern are the species, C. jejuni and C. coli, which are responsible for most of these gastrointestinal-related infections. Although these organisms have already emerged as causative agents of zoonoses, several aspects of their epidemiology and pathophysiology are only beginning to emerge. Trends in increasing antibiotic resistance are beginning to emerge with oral antibiotics, which may be the drug of choice for when it is necessary to intervene chemotherapeutically. This review wishes to examine (i) emerging clinical aspects of the disease, such as Guillain Barré syndrome (GBS), (ii) the association between these organisms and poultry as a natural host, (iii) environmental aspects of Campylobacter epidemiology, (iv) the emergence of atypical campylobacters (v) emerging trends in antibiotic resistance, (vi) adoption of modern methods for the detection of campylobacters.

Cronobacter spp. (Enterobacter sakazakii) are a recently described genus that is comprised of six genomospecies. The classification of these organisms was revised based on a detailed polyphasic taxonomic study. Cronobacter spp. are regarded as ubiquitous organisms having been isolated from a wide variety of foods. These bacteria are opportunistic pathogens and are linked with life-threatening infections in neonates. Clinical symptoms of Cronobacter infection include necrotizing enterocolitis, bacteremia, and meningitis, with case fatality rates of 50-80% being reported. Contaminated powdered infant formula has been epidemiologically linked with infections. Recently, infections among immunocompromised adults, mainly the elderly, have also been reported. A high tolerance to osmotic stress and elevated temperatures contribute to the survival of Cronobacter spp. in dried foods such as powdered infant formula. Controlling the organism in the production environment, thereby reducing dissemination, necessitates the provision of suitable diagnostic tools. Studies demonstrated that a high degree of variability exists amongst the phenotypic-based methods used to identify Cronobacter spp. However, advances in molecular detection and subtyping techniques have significantly improved the identification and characterization of Cronobacter spp. The dose required to induce infection has yet to be determined. In vitro virulence studies have shown that Cronobacter spp. may survive in macrophage cells and efficiently attach to and invade epithelial cell lines. The production of exopolysaccharide may contribute to the formation of biofilm and active efflux pumps promote resistance to antimicrobial agents such as bile salts and disinfectants. A holistic approach combining techniques such as comparative genome analysis, proteomics, and in vivo challenges could help unravel the complex interactions between this pathogen and its host. These data would help identify those properties in Cronobacter spp. which enable the bacterium to survive in the production environment and infect vulnerable neonates via the food chain.

Two antigenic sites recognized by neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) directed against the fusion (F) glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus were mapped on the primary structure of the protein by (i) the identification of amino acid substitutions selected in antibody-escape mutants and (ii) the reactivity of synthetic peptides with MAbs. The first site contained several overlapping epitopes which were located within the trypsin-resistant amino-terminal third of the large F1 subunit. Only one of these epitopes was faithfully reproduced by a short synthetic peptide; the others might require specific local conformations to react with MAbs. The second antigenic site was located in a trypsin-sensitive domain of the F1 subunit towards the carboxy-terminal end of the cysteine-rich region. One of these epitopes was reproduced by synthetic peptides. In addition, mutagenized F protein with a substitution of serine for arginine at position 429 did not bind MAbs to the second site. These results are discussed in terms of F protein structure and the mechanisms of virus neutralization.

Non-thermal technologies such as UV irradiation can offer advantages for minimal processing of transparent beverages. In this study, reconstituted apple juice was exposed to UV light in a continuous laboratory scale system at energy dosages ranging from 2.66 to 53.10 J/cm 2 by changing the exposure time. Treated juices were then evaluated for microbial inactivation and selected physical and chemical attributes. Product quality was further assessed by sensory evaluation using a 30-member consumer panel. Microbiological analysis was performed by inoculating apple juice with Escherichia coli K12 and Listeria innocua and microbial numbers were counted preand post-processing. UV energy levels did not affect pH,°B rix, or total phenols content, but decreased non-enzymatic browning (p<0.01) and antioxidant capacity (p<0.05) compared to unprocessed juice. A colour-lightening effect was noted with increasing energy dose. All UV treatments applied (2.66 J/cm 2 and above) resulted in a reduction below the detection level (<1 log cfu/ml) for both E. coli and L. innocua in apple juice. Sensory evaluation showed that samples treated with energy dosages up to 10.62 J/cm 2 were comparable to the control in terms of acceptability, though higher dosages produced adverse effects in terms of flavour and colour. Based on these results, UV treatment with low energy dosages could represent a valid alternative to thermal processing to eliminate pathogenic microorganisms while maintaining quality in reconstituted apple juice.

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Rectal swabs were collected from 147 household dogs and 35 household cats, including healthy animals, animals with gastrointestinal signs and animals with a variety of medical and surgical conditions. A combination of selective culture methods was used to optimise the recovery of Campylobacter species, and a PCR was used to confirm their isolation and to identify the species. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter species was 42.9 per cent in the cats and 41.5 per cent in the dogs. Campylobacter upsaliensis was the species most commonly isolated from the dogs and cats, and Campylobacter jejuni was the second most commonly isolated. Particularly high prevalences were detected in the few cats and dogs with diarrhoea, and in the cats and dogs that were six months old or younger.

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