Quantifying environmental changes relative to ecosystem reference conditions (baseline or natural states) can inform assessment of anthropogenic impacts and the development of restoration objectives and targets. We developed statistical models to predict current and reference concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in surface waters for a nationally representative sample of ≥1033 New Zealand lakes. The lake-specific nutrient concentrations reflected variation in factors including anthropogenic nutrient loads, hydrology, geology, elevation, climate, and lake and catchment morphology. Changes between reference and current concentrations were expressed to quantify the magnitude of anthropogenic eutrophication. Overall, there was a clear increase in lake trophic status, with the most common trophic status being oligotrophic under a reference state and mesotrophic under current conditions. The magnitude of departure from reference state varied considerably within the sample; however, on average, the mean TN concentration approximately doubled between reference and current states, whereas the mean TP concentration increased approximately 4-fold. This study quantified the extent of water quality degradation across lake types at a national scale, thereby informing ecological restoration objectives and the potential to reduce anthropogenic nutrient loads, while also providing a modeling framework that can be applied to lakes elsewhere.

Birds living in alpine environments are becoming increasingly impacted by human‐induced threats. We investigated the impacts of introduced mammalian predators on an endangered alpine species, the New Zealand Rockwren Xenicus gilviventris, and assessed whether predator control improved its breeding success. Nest monitoring revealed that the primary cause of nest failure was predation by invasive mammals, primarily Stoats Mustela erminea and House Mice Mus musculus. Daily survival rates (DSR) decreased with nest age, and nests were at their most vulnerable to predators just prior to fledging. DSR, egg‐hatching and fledgling rates were all improved by predator trapping, demonstrating the significant impacts that even low numbers of invasive predators can have on sensitive alpine and upland species.

Spatial capture–recapture (SCR) models are commonly used to estimate animal population density from detections and subsequent redetections of individuals across space. In particular, acoustic SCR models deal with detections of animal vocalisations across an array of acoustic detectors. Previously published acoustic SCR methods either estimate call density (calls per unit space per unit time) rather than animal density itself, require an independently estimated call rate to estimate animal density, or discard data from all but one detected call from each individual. In this manuscript, we develop a new spatial capture–recapture model that estimates both call rate and animal density from the acoustic survey alone, without requiring an independently estimated call rate. Our approach therefore alleviates the need for the additional fieldwork of physically locating and monitoring individual animals. We illustrate our method and compare it to an existing approach using a simulation study and an application to data collected on an acoustic survey of the visually cryptic Cape peninsula moss frog Arthroleptella lightfooti. In the context of our acoustic survey, our calling animal density estimator has low bias, good precision and confidence intervals with appropriate coverage, yielding results that are consistent with previous studies of the same species. Our method can obtain accurate and precise estimates of animal density while eliminating the fieldwork burden associated with separately estimating call rate. We discuss how the development of our model's likelihood reveals a clear path to further extensions, which may incorporate features such as animal movement processes and uncertain individual identification.

1. There is a global need for observation systems that deliver regular, timely data on state and trends in biodiversity, but few have been implemented, and fewer still at national scales. We describe the implementation of measurement of Essential Biodiversity Variables (EBVs) on an 8 km × 8 km grid throughout New Zealand, with multiple components of biodiversity (vegetation, birds, and some introduced mammals) measured simultaneously at each sample point. 2. Between 2011 and 2017, all public land was sampled nationally (ca. 1,350 points) and some private land (ca. 500 points). Synthetic appraisals of the state of New Zealand's biodiversity, not possible previously, can be derived from the first measurement of species distribution, population abundance, and taxonomic diversity EBVs. 3. Native bird counts (all species combined) were about 2.5 times greater per sample point in natural forests and shrublands than in non-woody ecosystems, and native bird counts exceeded those of non-native birds across all natural forests and shrublands. 4. Non-native plants, birds, and mammals are invasive throughout, but high-rainfall forested regions are least invaded, and historically deforested rain shadow regions are most invaded. 5. National reporting of terrestrial biodiversity across New Zealand's public land is established and becoming normalised, in the same manner as national and international reporting of human health and education statistics. The challenge is extending coverage across all private land. Repeated measurements of these EBVs, which began in 2017, will allow defensible estimates of biodiversity trends. K E Y W O R D S biological invasions, grid-based sampling, non-native birds, state and trend monitoring, systematic biodiversity assessment This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Benchmarks to inform lake management and assessment Knowledge of trophic status is fundamental to understanding the condition and function of lake ecosystems. We developed regression models to predict chlorophyll a concentrations (chl a) in New Zealand lakes for reference and current states, based on an existing dataset of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations for 1,031 lakes. Models were then developed to predict Secchi depth based on chl a and a sediment resuspension term applicable to shallow lakes. Estimates of all four Trophic Level Index (TLI) variables (chl a, TN, TP and Secchi depth) were analysed to estimate reference and current state TLI for the nationally representative sample of 1,031 lakes. There was a trend of eutrophication between reference and current states, with systematic differences among lake geomorphic types. Mean chl a increased 3.5-fold (2.42 mg m-3 vs. 8.32 mg m-3) and mean Secchi depth decreased (indicating lower clarity) by approximately one-third (9.62 m vs. 6.48 m) between reference and current states. On average, TLI increased by 0.67, with the TLI increase >1 in approximately one-third (31%) of lakes. This study informs the status of lake ecosystems in NZ and provides benchmarks to guide management and assessment.

An increasing global demand for sea cucumbers has led to interest in benthic ranching of the California sea cucumber Parastichopus californicus beneath existing aquaculture sites in British Columbia, Canada, where high levels of total organic matter (TOM) are typical. The objective of the present study was to investigate movement of P. californicus in relation to areas of increased organic content to assess the feasibility of sea cucumber ranching beneath existing aquaculture sites. A laboratory experiment using adult sea cucumbers showed that P. californicus changed their foraging behaviour based on available amounts of TOM, moving more randomly in high-TOM (~8.0%) areas and more directly in low-TOM (~1.4%) ones. They also moved more rapidly in areas with high TOM than in those with low TOM. As long as animals were exposed to high TOM, they did not abandon random movement. Because of this behaviour, aquaculture tenures may retain a population of cultured individuals, but could also attract wild individuals from the surrounding area.

Well‐designed environmental monitoring programmes for management organisations are important for evidence‐based decision making. However, many environmental problems are not single agency issues that require intervention or monitoring at one spatial scale. A master sample can be used to coordinate and scale monitoring designs to ensure consistency in information gathered and robustness of estimators at the different spatial scales. We propose using balanced acceptance sampling (BAS) to generate a master sample. In this context, practical applications and justification of BAS as a master sample are addressed. These include sample generation, stratification, unequal probability sampling, rotating panel designs, and regional intensification. A method for incorporating legacy sites is also provided. Using BAS as a master sample is conceptually simple, gives good spatial balance over different spatial scales, and is computationally efficient to generate. An example for terrestrial biodiversity monitoring in New Zealand is provided. Environmental monitoring can benefit from increased coordination between agencies. A master sample is an excellent way to incorporate coordination directly into the sample design. BAS improves on methods previously described and provides an effective method to monitor populations at multiple spatial scales.

No abstract