Abstract. We investigate relationships between environmental governance and water quality in two adjacent growing metropolitan areas in the western US. While the Portland, Oregon and Vancouver, Washington metro areas share many common biophysical characteristics, they have different land development histories and water governance structures, providing a unique opportunity for examining how differences in governance might affect environmental quality. We conceptualize possible linkages in which water quality influences governance directly, using monitoring efforts as a metric, and indirectly by using the change in the sale price of single-family residential properties. Governance may then influence water quality directly through riparian restoration resulting from monitoring results and indirectly through land use policy. We investigate evidence to substantiate these linkages. Our results showed that changes in monitoring regimes and land development patterns differed in response to differences in growth management policy and environmental governance systems. Our results also showed similarities in environmental quality responses to varying governance systems. For example, we found that sales prices responded positively to improved water quality (e.g., increases in DO and reductions in bacteria counts) in both cities. Furthermore, riparian restoration efforts improved over time for both cities, indicating the positive effect of governance on this land-based resource that may result in improved water quality. However, as of yet, there were no substantial differences across study areas in water temperature over time, despite an expansion of these urban areas of more than 20 % over 24 years.The mechanisms by which water quality was maintained was similar in the sense that both cities benefited from riparian restoration, but different in the sense that Portland benefited indirectly from land use policy. A combination of long-term legacy effects of land development, and a relatively short history of riparian restoration in both the Portland and Vancouver regions, may have masked any subtle differences between study areas. An alternative explanation is that both cities exhibited combinations of positive indirect and direct water quality governance that resulted in maintenance of water quality in the face of increased urban growth. These findings suggest that a much longer-term water quality monitoring effort is needed to identify the effectiveness of alternative land development and water governance policies.

The production, certification, and marketing of organic agriculture developed slowly in the West as a nongovernmental, community-based response to concerns over food safety and the environmental impacts of chemical agriculture. The current emergence of organic agriculture in less-developed nations is following a very different trajectory owing to the presence of an established global market for organic products and the developmental goals of interventionist states. In this paper I examine the emergence of state-sponsored organic marketing and certification programs in the Peoples' Republic of China as an extreme case of developmental state intervention in organic agriculture. I find that the predominance of state and market instead of community and ecology in the Chinese organic ‘movement’ has profound implications for the ability of organics to promote environmentally sustainable agriculture in less-developed nations. Direct state intervention may overcome some of the public-goods and collective-action problems often associated with organic agriculture. However, conflicts of interest between the state as regulator and as producer erode the consumer trust upon which organic markets rely. The use of political authority to organize organic production allows state entrepreneurs to capture market premiums, reducing farmer innovation and long-term incentive, and exacerbating free-rider problems. The case of organic agriculture in China demonstrates the need for caution when applying universalistic economic theories about environmental problems to diverse political economies. This has important implications for international environmental regimes as well as the globalization of eco-consumerism or eco-labeling strategies.

h i g h l i g h t s• We examine urban growth boundary effectiveness at conserving farm and forest land in Portland, OR-Vancouver, WA (USA).• We focus on forest, farm, and developed land uses from the mid-1970s to the mid-2000s.• We found that urban growth boundaries have effectively contained low-density residential and urban development.• These effects have varied among counties and between the Oregon and Washington portions of the metropolitan area.• Differences in effectiveness likely owe in part to each jurisdiction's unique geography and land use planning history. a b s t r a c tWe examine land use planning outcomes over a 30-year period in the Portland, OR-Vancouver, WA (USA) metropolitan area. The four-county study region enables comparisons between three Oregon counties subject to Oregon's 1973 Land Use Act (Senate Bill 100) and Clark County, WA which implemented land use planning under Washington's 1990 Growth Management Act. We describe county-level historical land uses from the mid-1970s to the mid-2000s, including low-density residential and urban development, both outside and inside of current urban growth boundaries. We use difference-in-differences models to test whether differences in the proportions of developed land resulting from implementation of urban growth boundaries are statistically significant and whether they vary between Oregon and Washington. Our results suggest that land use planning and urban growth boundaries now mandated both in Oregon and Washington portions of the study area have had a measurable and statistically significant effect in containing development and conserving forest and agricultural lands in the Portland-Vancouver metropolitan area. Our results also suggest, however, that these effects differ across the four study-area counties, likely owing in part to differences in counties' initial levels of development, distinctly different land use planning histories, and how restrictive their urban growth boundaries were drawn.Published by Elsevier B.V.

Organic farming may present opportunities for job creation over and above those provided by conventional agriculture; this study is one of a small number to have empirically examined this proposition. We compared countywide averages of hired farm labor from the USDA's 2007 Agricultural Census with data collected through a mirrored survey of organic farmers in the same counties in Washington and California. Based on mixed-effects linear models to estimate differences (if any) in employment between organic farms and countywide farm averages, our analysis indicated that organic farms employed more workers per acre (95% CI: 2-12% more). Further, a greater proportion (95% CI: 13-43% more) of hired labor on organic farms worked 150 days or more compared to the average farm, suggesting increased labor requirements-and potentially more secure employment-on organic farms. We conclude the present study by considering possible policy implications of our findings with regards to organic agriculture as part of regional economic development strategies.

The traditional command and control approach and the more recent free market have proven inadequate for promoting ecological agricultural development in China. Organic certification represents a regulated market mechanism with the potential to stimulate ecologically based agricultural research, extension, and investment. Recent linkages between the global organic food industry and local agricultural development in China provide an opportunity to test this potential. The article examines China's two largest organic certification systems for their potential to promote the adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) as a key component of ecological agriculture. Organic certification is providing a format for research, extension, and implementation of IPM principles and practices, and has the potential to do much more. However, possible contradictions between ecological and market rationality, inherent in organic certification and marketing systems, may be exacerbated by the authoritarian political economy of rural China.

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With the decline of the international market under the Clean Development Mechanism, China is establishing a national Emission Trading Scheme by setting up emission cap and trade rules for high emission industries in seven pilot areas. The shift from the international to domestic market and from an offset program to a true cap and trade mechanism requires several significant changes. This paper reviews the development and evolution of China’s carbon trading market policy instruments. We find that there are substantial changes in both structure and policy. First, Emission Trading Scheme is a broad cap-and-trade mechanism with many new stakeholders added to those already involved in China’s Clean Development Mechanism. Second, the administrative structure is decentralized compared to that of the Clean Development Mechanism. Third, while the Emission Trading Scheme is best thought of as a new policy, China’s experience with the Clean Development Mechanism influences that policy. A large number of Clean Development Mechanism projects are being converted into offsets for the national Emission Trading Scheme market, and many institutional stakeholders that emerged during the Clean Development Mechanism are now involved in the Emission Trading Scheme. The combination of new policies and stakeholders, a decentralization of structure and the conversion of Clean Development Mechanism projects raise questions regarding the integrity of the cap and the enforcement of compliance as the Emission Trading Scheme is expanded into a nationwide system.