Singlet fission (SF), a process by which two excited states are formed in a chromophoric system following the absorption of a single photon, has the potential to increase the theoretical efficiency of solar energy conversion devices beyond the single-junction Shockley-Quiesser limit. Although SF is observed with high yield in the solid state of certain molecules, linearly linked dimers based on these same constituents exhibit small yields in part due to small interchromophore electronic coupling. Previous work from our group demonstrated enhancement of SF yield in polycrystalline tetracene (Tc) via excitation of intermolecular motions, which increased direct overlap of monomer π-systems. In this current work, a series of norbornyl-bridged bistetracene (BT) dimers are investigated using DFT and the ability to control SF thermodynamics along with important interchromophore electronic coupling parameters via bridging geometry is shown. Although the electronic coupling of a series of C2v-symmetric dimers (BT1-BT3) that differ in norbornyl bridge length is larger than in previously studied Tc dimers, a key nonhorizontal electron-transfer (ET) matrix element used in determining the SF rate is zero due to symmetry. In these systems, SF may be expected but electronic excitation will require coupling to vibrational modes that break symmetry. Singly bridged dimer isomers BT1-trans and BT1-cis, which break the C2v symmetry of BT1 by exploiting attachment of the norbornyl bridge at the 1,2 instead of the 2,3 Tc positions, are expected to be significantly more favorable for SF due to an exoergic driving force, increased electronic coupling, a lower charge-transfer-state energy (particularly in the case of BT1-cis), and nonhorizontal ET matrix elements that are nonzero.

Ground- and excited-state properties of [Ru(tpy)(2)](2+), [Ru(tpy)(ttpy)](2+), and [Ru(ttpy)(2)](2+) (where tpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine and ttpy = 4'-(4-methylphenyl)-2,2':6',2″-terpyridine) in room temperature acetonitrile have been investigated using linear absorption, electrochemical, and ultrafast transient pump-probe techniques. Spectroelectrochemistry was used to assign features observed in the transient spectra while single wavelength kinetics collected at a variety of probe wavelengths were used to monitor temporal evolution of the MLCT excited state. From these data, the excited-state lifetime of each complex was recovered and the rate limiting decay step was identified. In the bis-heteroleptic complex [Ru(tpy)(ttpy)](2+), photoexcitation to the (1)MLCT manifold generates both tpy-localized and ttpy-localized excited states. Accordingly, interligand electron transfer (ILET) from tpy-localized to the ttpy-localized (3)MLCT excited states is observable and the time scale has been measured to be 3 ps. For the homoleptic complex [Ru(tpy)(2)](2+), evidence for equilibration of the (3)MLCT excited-state population with the (3)MC has been observed and the time scale is reported at 2 ps.

Three new photoinduced electron donor-acceptor (D-A) systems are reported which juxtapose a Ru(II) excited-state donor with a bipyridinium acceptor via a conformationally active asymmetric aryl-substituted bipyridine ligand participating in the bridge between D and A. Across the series of complexes 1-3, steric bulk is sequentially added to tune the inter-ring dihedral angle theta between the bipyridine and the aryl substituent. Driving forces for photoinduced electron transfer (DeltaG(ET)) and back electron transfer (DeltaG(BET)) are reported based on electrochemical measurements of 1-3 as well as Franck-Condon analysis of emission spectra collected for three new donor model complexes 1'-3'. These preserve the substitution patterns on the aryl substituent in their respective D-A complexes but remove the bipyridinium acceptor. Both DeltaG(ET) and DeltaG(BET) are invariant to within 0.02 eV across the series. Upon visible photoexcitation of each of the D-A systems with approximately 100 fs laser pulses at 500 +/- 10 nm, an electron-transfer (ET) photoproduct is observed to form with a time constant of tau(ET) = 29 ps (1), 37 ps (2), and 57 ps (3). That ET remains relatively rapid throughout this series, even as steric bulk significantly increases the inter-ring dihedral angle theta, is attributed to the effects of ligand-based torsional dynamics driven by intraligand electron delocalization in the D*-A excited state manifold prior to ET. The lifetimes of the charge-separated states (tau(BET)) are also reported with tau(BET) = 98 ps (1), 217 ps (2), and 789 ps (3), representing a more than 8-fold increase across the series. This is attributed to reverse conformational dynamics in D(+)-A(-) driven by steric repulsions, which serves to minimize electronic coupling to the ground state. Steric control of ligand geometry and the range over which theta changes during conformational dynamics provides a new strategy to facilitate the formation and storage of charge-separated excited states.

Dissociative electron transfer reactions are prevalent in one-electron reduced aryl halides; however, calculations applied to charge-transfer excited states of metal complexes suggest that this reaction would be strongly endergonic unless attention is paid to specific structural details. In this current study, we explore the effect of introducing intramolecular strain into a series of halogenated ruthenium(II) polypyridyls. Parent [Ru(tpy)2](2+) (1) (tpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine) is compared with two complexes, [Ru(6,6″-Br2-tpy)(tpy)](2+) (2) and [Ru(6,6″-Br2-tpy)2](2+) (3) (6,6″-Br2-tpy = 6,6″-dibromo-tpy) that incorporate interligand van der Waals strain derived from the large halogen substituents. DFT calculations and the crystal structure of 3 show how this strain distorts the geometry of 3 as compared to 1. Time-dependent DFT calculations are used to explain the effect of this strain on electronic absorption spectra where, in particular, a transition observed in 3 is attenuated in 2 and absent in 1 and heralds interligand charge transfer mediated by the halogen substituent. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy reveals coherent vibrational dynamics particularly in 3 but also in 2 that is interpreted as reflecting heavy-atom motion. Surprisingly, in spite of the additional strain, the excited-state lifetime of 3 is observed to be approximately a factor of 6 longer than 2. Constrained-DFT calculations show that while the excited behavior of 2 is similar to 1, the strain-induced geometric distortions in 3 cause a nesting of excited state triplet surfaces resulting in a longer excited state lifetime. This may afford the additional time needed to engage in photochemistry, and kinetic evidence is observed for the breaking of a C-Br bond in 3 and formation of a contact ion pair state.

Energy wasting charge recombination is an efficiency limiting process in efforts to achieve solar energy storage. Here, density functional theory is used to explore the thermodynamics of photochemical energy storage reactions in several ruthenium polypyridyl complexes where heterolytic halogen-carbon bond scission occurs after light-induced formation of the triplet metal to ligand charge transfer ((3)MLCT) state, as seen in the following reaction: [Ru(II)(A)(n)(L-X)](2+) + hν → [Ru(III)(A)(n)(L-X)(•-)](2+)* → [Ru(III)(A)(n)(L·)](3+) + X(-) (L = polypyridine ligand; X = Cl, Br, and I; A = ancillary ligand). A thermochemical cycle is employed to determine structural and electronic factors influencing ΔE(rxn). Significant energetic penalties in the oxidation of the metal center are mitigated through methylation of ancillary ligands or introduction of amine ancillary ligands. Methylation of the halogenated ligand maintains energy stored in the (3)MLCT state. Reduction in ΔE(rxn) is obtained by exploiting strain in the coordination geometry or in sterically encumbered ligands that is released upon bond breaking. Formation of a contact ion pair is significantly more favorable than complete separation of charged products, and shows negative ΔE with respect to the (3)MLCT state in certain cases. Future tunability in stored energy may be achieved through careful manipulation of ligand structure and charge on ancillary ligands.