SummaryThe ability to accurately identify fibres is of importance to conservators, allowing the most appropriate methods of treatment to be employed. Our research has concentrated on the development of an ATR FT-IR spectroscopic technique for the characterisation of cellulosic (plant) fibres.Six species of fibre were examined, taken largely from the bast group (flax, hemp, jute and ramie), along with cotton and sisal. Initially, unprocessed fibres were considered; subsequently, processed fibres from a variety of sources were examined. Peak intensity ratio techniques were employed to differentiate the fibre types on the basis of relative lignin content with respect to other cellular components.It was found that for each of the species of fibre, the ratios fell within characteristic ranges.

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When assessing historic textiles and considering appropriate conservation, display, and storage strategies, characterizing the physical condition of the textiles is essential. Our work has concentrated on developing nondestructive or micro-destructive methodologies that will permit this. Previously, we have demonstrated a correlation between the physical deterioration of unweighted and "pink" tin (IV) chloride weighted silk and certain measurable spectroscopic and chromatographic signatures, derived from polarized Fourier transform infrared attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy (Pol-ATR) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) microsampling analyses. The application of the Pol-ATR technique to aged silk characterization has now been extended to include a more comprehensive range of weighting methods and aging regimes. This was intended to replicate the full spectrum of states of deterioration observed in silk textiles, from pristine to heavily degraded. Breaking strength was employed as a measure of the physical integrity of the fibers, and, as expected, decreased with aging. An orientational crystallinity parameter, reflecting the microstructural ordering of the fibroin polymer within the fibers, was derived from the Pol-ATR spectra. A good correlation was observed between the breaking strength of the variety of fibers and this parameter. This suggests that the physical state of historic silk fabrics might be adequately characterized for conservation purposes by such indirect micromethodology.

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The Battle of Trafalgar took place in 1805 and is generally accepted to mark the last occasion of combat between major fleets of sailing ships, when a combined Franco-Spanish force of 33 battleships was defeated by a British fleet of 27 battleships blockading Cadiz and the approaches to the Mediterranean Sea. The HMS Victory Trafalgar sail, the fore-topsail from Admiral Lord Nelson's flagship, was severely damaged and has since suffered significant natural deterioration. As the only extant early 19th century sail in the world, it is a unique artefact and arguably Britain's foremost maritime textile treasure. Prior to its display at the bicentennial exhibition in 2005, the sail was analysed by Raman spectroscopy. Complementary tensile tests were also completed on loose yarn from around the damaged areas. The mechanical data and Raman spectral comparisons suggest a good correspondence between the historic sailcloth and surrogate specimens. The implications for European history of the defeat of the Napoleonic fleet at Trafalgar were profound: Napoleon's army of 90 000 men in the Netherlands, poised for the invasion of Britain, was isolated and the Emperor turned his attention east to Russia, with dire consequences some years later.Nelson's bold stratagem involved the division of his fleet into two forces, the Weather Column led by Admiral Nelson in HMS Victory comprising 12 battleships and the Lee Column of 15 battleships led by Admiral Collingwood in HMS Royal Sovereign (100 guns). Both columns sailed inline-astern and engaged the enemy fleet orthogonally; this meant that the British ships were receiving hostile gunfire without being able to return fire for some 30 min before they broke through the Franco-Spanish lines and retaliated with broadsides fired into the unprotected flanks of the enemy ships. The Bucentaure was taken out with the first broadside from the Victory and the Royal Sovereign accomplished the same with the Santa Ana. The close proximity of the naval action resulted in almost total destruction of the masts, sails and rigging of the opposing warships 1 and in severe losses to the naval crew on both sides; in this action the Royal Navy lost 449 killed and 1241 wounded, with 4408 killed, 2545 wounded and 7000 captured in the Franco-Spanish fleet.A painting by J.M.W. Turner depicting the Victory engaging with the Bucentuare, having broken through the Franco-Spanish line is shown in Fig. 1. It depicts the foremast with fore-topsail attached being brought down by gunfire from the French battleship Neptune 1 ; French naval tactics centred on the broadside firing 'on the roll', which caused disproportionate destruction to the sails, spars and rigging of the enemy warships. INTRODUCTIONThe HMS Victory, constructed as a First-Rated battleship in 1765, is now preserved in a dry dock at Portsmouth. In a complementary exhibition to mark the bicentenary of the Battle of Trafalgar in 2005, the fore-topsail (hereafter known as the Victory sail) is being displayed. It is the only surviving sail from the 60 battl...