The ligand binding domain (LBD) and the amino-terminal, transactivation domain (TAD) of the androgen receptor (AR) were separately linked to the GAL4 DNA binding domain (DBD) and to the GAL4(TAD). Resulting constructs were tested in the yeast two-hybrid system for protein-protein interactions. In the presence of androgen [methyltrienolone (R1881) or dihydrotestosterone (DHT)] a transcriptionally active complex was formed, reflecting an association between the AR(LBD) and the AR(TAD). No interactions were found in the presence of low-affinity ligands like estradiol (E2), promegestone (R5020), or progesterone (Pg). Use of the Thr-868-Ala mutated AR(LBD) in the assay resulted not only in a clear AR TAD-LBD interaction in the presence of R1881 and DHT but also in the presence of E2, Pg, and R5020, corresponding to the alteration in ligand specificity induced by the mutation. Coexpression of the fusion protein Gal4(DBD)AR(LBD) and the separate AR(TAD) also gave rise to the formation of a transcriptionally active complex. No interactions were found between two AR LBDs at the low-expression level of the two components. However, LBD-LBD interaction was detectable by application of a high-expression vector for GAL4(TAD)AR(LBD), albeit at high ligand concentrations. To substantiate the observation of the AR LBD-TAD interaction, CHO cells were cotransfected with expression plasmids for a truncated AR, which lacks the TAD [AR(DBD)(LBD)], and for the separate AR(TAD). This resulted in stimulation of a MMTV-LUC reporter gene in the presence of R1881 but not in the absence of hormone. This finding indicates that, like in the yeast system, in mammalian cells, TAD-LBD interactions are of importance for AR activation. In the mammalian system, a maximal AR TAD-LBD interaction was obtained at approximately 10-fold higher ligand concentrations than required for full-length AR activation. In the presence of low-affinity ligands, the AR TAD-LBD interaction as measured by transcriptional activation was considerably weaker than the activity of the full-length AR. From the present results a concept of hormone-dependent AR activation is proposed, which requires a functional, direct or indirect intramolecular interaction between the TAD and the LBD.
Previous studies in yeast and mammalian cells showed a functional interaction between the amino-terminal domain and the carboxy-terminal, ligand-binding domain (LBD) of the human androgen receptor (AR). In the present study, the AR subdomains involved in this in vivo interaction were determined in more detail. Cotransfection experiments in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and two-hybrid experiments in yeast revealed that two regions in the NH2-terminal domain are involved in the functional interaction with the LBD: an interacting domain at the very NH2 terminus, located between amino acid residues 3 and 36, and a second domain, essential for transactivation, located between residues 370 and 494. Substitution of glutamic acid by glutamine at position 888 (E888Q) in the AF-2 activation domain (AD) core region in the LBD, markedly decreased the interaction with the NH2-terminal domain. This mutation neither influenced hormone binding nor LBD homodimerization, suggesting a role of the AF-2 AD core region in the functional interaction between the NH2-terminal domain and the LBD. The AF-2 AD core region was also involved in the interaction with the coactivator TIF2 (transcriptional intermediary factor 2), as the E888Q mutation decreased the stimulatory effect of TIF2 on AR AF-2 activity. Cotransfection of TIF2 and the AR NH2-terminal domain expression vectors did not result in synergy between both factors in the induction of AR AF-2 activity. TIF2 highly induced AR AF-2 activity on a complex promoter [mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)], but it was hardly active on a minimal promoter (GRE-TATA). In contrast, the AR NH2-terminal domain induced AR AF-2 activity on both promoter constructs. These data indicate that both the AR NH2-terminal domain and the coactivator TIF2 functionally interact, either directly or indirectly, with the AF-2 AD core region in the AR-LBD, but the level of transcriptional response induced by TIF2 depends on the promoter context.
In a subset of endocrine therapy-resistant prostate cancers, amino acid substitutions H874Y, T877A and T877S, which broaden ligand specificity of the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the androgen receptor (AR), have been detected. To increase our knowledge of the role of amino acid substitutions at these specific positions in prostate cancer, codons 874 and 877 were subjected to random mutagenesis. AR mutants were screened in a yeast readout system for responsiveness to 5␣-dihydrotestosterone, progesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone. At position 874, only the histidine to tyrosine substitution could broaden AR ligand specificity. At position 877, 4 ligand specificity broadening substitutions were found: T877A, T877S, T877C and T877G. The latter 2 were not found in prostate cancer. The AR mutants were tested in mammalian (Hep3B) cells for responsiveness to 13 different ligands. All mutants displayed their own ligand specificity spectrum. Importantly, AR(H874Y) and AR(T877A) could be activated by cortisol. According to the 3-dimensional structure of the AR LBD, T877 interacts directly with the 17-hydroxyl group of androgens. All amino acid substitutions identified at position 877 had smaller side chains than the threonine in the wild-type receptor, indicating that increased space in the ligand binding pocket is important in broadened ligand specificity. Because H874 does not interact directly with the ligand, its substitution by a tyrosine is expected to change the ligand binding pocket conformation indirectly. For T877C and T877G substitutions, 2-point mutations are required, and for H874Y, T877A and T877S substitutions, only a 1-point mutation is sufficient. This most likely explains that the latter 3 have been found in prostate cancer. © Androgens (testosterone [T] and 5␣-dihydrotestosterone[DHT]) are essential for development and maintenance of the male phenotype. They mediate their function by activation of the androgen receptor (AR), which is a member of the nuclear receptor family of transcription factors. The AR also plays a pivotal role in prostate tumor growth. Because growth of most prostate cancers depends on continuous androgenic stimulation, therapy of metastatic disease is generally based on androgen withdrawal or blockade of AR function by antiandrogens. However, after an initial regression, essentially all tumors continue to grow.Like other nuclear receptors, the AR displays a modular structure: a carboxy-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD), a central DNA binding domain (DBD), and an amino-terminal transactivation domain (TAD). Upon ligand binding, the AR regulates transcription by binding to specific androgen response elements in regulatory regions of target genes. Together with coactivators, general transcription factors and RNA polymerase II, a stable transcription initiation complex is formed (for reviews, see refs. 1-3). The size of the AR can be variable, due to variation in the length of polyglutamine and polyglycine stretches in the TAD. The amino acid numbering in our article correspon...
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