The purpose of this study was to compare transformational and instructional leadership theories, examine the unique impact that school leaders have on student achievement, and determine which specific leadership practices are associated with increased student achievement. The sample for this study consisted of 590 teachers in 37 elementary schools in the Intermountain West of the United States. Teachers rated their principals’ leadership style according to the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Transformational Leadership) and the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (Instructional leadership). Student achievement was measured by a criterion referenced test. Hypotheses were tested using regression analysis. Results indicated that instructional leadership explained more of the variance in student achievement than did transformational leadership. Principals’ leadership style tended to have a meaningful impact on student achievement beyond the impact of school context and principal demographics. Specific leadership functions associated with student achievement were also identified and reported. Conclusion, implications and limitations are also discussed.

Comprehensive evidence-based interventions are needed to help early childhood educators manage challenging student behaviors. One such intervention, class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT), is a multi-tiered behavioral intervention program based on positive behavior support principles, including four main elements: (a) teaching socially appropriate communication skills, (b) using differential reinforcement with an interdependent group contingency, (c) extinguishing or eliminating potential reinforcement for problem behavior, and (d) implementing individual interventions using self-management, help cards, and/or functional assessment. This study implemented CW-FIT with five kindergarten through second grade teachers. Results demonstrated efficacy of the program as early childhood teachers increased their praise rates and decreased their reprimand rates, and students responded with increased on-task behavior and fewer classroom disruptions. Study implications and limitations are addressed.

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Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) face numerous obstacles to learning. They typically rank very low on teacher desirability (Soodak, Podell, & Lehman, 1998), receive very little teacher praise (Rathel, Drasgow, Brown, & Marshall, 2014; Rathel, Drasgow, & Christle, 2008), and are more likely to fail academically than students with a learning disability or with no disability (Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004). Students with EBD demonstrate unsuccessful peer relationships, antisocial behavior, internalizing behavior, aggression, and attention problems (Conley, Marchant, & Caldarella, 2014). Such students commonly use argumentative language, make disruptive statements during classroom instruction, and leave their seats often (Weeden, Wills, Kottwitz, & Kamps, 2016). A meta-analysis including 2,486 participants with EBD (Reid, Gonzalez, Nordness, Trout, & Epstein, 2004), of whom 80% were male, found academic performance was affected across all subjects (particularly for students younger than 12 years) in both resource and general education classrooms. In a study of 422 students with disabilities (Doren, Bullis, & Benz, 1996), researchers found that individuals with severe emotional disturbance were 13 times more likely to be arrested than peers with other disabilities. Researchers and practitioners have attempted to help students both with and at risk of EBD overcome behavioral and academic challenges by studying the relationship between teacher praise or reprimands and subsequent student behavior (Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2009; Reinke, Herman, & Stormont, 2013). Despite promising findings, little is known about the relationship between natural rates of teacher praise and student behavior (Floress, Jenkins, Reinke, & McKown, 2018). For example, no clear patterns regarding when or for whom teacher praise might be effective were revealed during a recent review of praise literature (Moore et al., 2018), and only one study has attempted to explore the relationship between differential rates of teacher classroom 800824P BIXXX10.

Transitioning from elementary to middle school is a time of particular vulnerability for students with behavior problems. This study examined the effects of class-wide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT) in three middle school classrooms to determine whether this multitiered intervention could help teachers proactively manage student behavior. With a focus on teaching classroom expectations, delivering behavior-specific praise, and providing differential reinforcement within an interdependent group contingency, CW-FIT is designed to teach functional replacement behaviors that support students’ academic engagement. Intervention effects were assessed with seventh- and eighth-grade students from diverse backgrounds. Results, evaluated using a single-subject withdrawal (ABAB) design, indicated improved rates of on-task behavior at both class-wide and individual student levels, with corresponding increases in teacher praise and decreases in teacher reprimands. The positive way in which participants viewed CW-FIT implementation and its accompanying effects on student behaviors was consistent with earlier findings in elementary schools. Study limitations and areas for future research are discussed.