We present Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) line and continuum observations at 1.2 mm with ∼0.3 ′′ resolution that uncover a Keplerian-like disk around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176. The continuum emission from the disk at 1.21 mm (source mm1) has a deconvolved size of 870±110 AU × 330±300 AU and arises from a structure ∼8 M ⊙ in mass, calculated assuming a dust temperature of 190 K. The first-moment maps, pixel-to-pixel line modeling, assuming local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE), and position-velocity diagrams of the CH 3 CN J=13-12 K-line emission all show a velocity gradient along the major axis of the source, coupled with an increase in velocity at small radii, consistent with Keplerian-like rotation. The LTE line modeling shows that where CH 3 CN J=13-12 is excited, the temperatures in the disk range from ∼70 to at least 300 K and that the H 2 column density peaks at 2.8×10 24 cm −2 . In addition, we present Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) 12 CO observations which show a large-scale outflow from AFGL 4176 perpendicular to the major axis of mm1, supporting the disk interpretation. Finally, we present a radiative transfer model of a Keplerian disk surrounding an O7 star, with a disk mass and radius of 12 M ⊙ and 2000 AU, that reproduces the line and continuum data, further supporting our conclusion that our observations have uncovered a Keplerian disk around an O-type star.

Context. Because of inherent difficulties involved in observations and numerical simulations of the formation of massive stars, an understanding of the early evolutionary phases of these objects remains elusive. In particular, observationally probing circumstellar material at distances < ∼ 100 AU from the central star is exceedingly difficult, as such objects are rare (and thus, on average, far away) and typically deeply embedded. Long-baseline mid-infrared interferometry provides one way of obtaining the necessary spatial resolution at appropriate wavelengths for studying this class of objects; however, interpreting such observations is often difficult due to sparse spatial-frequency coverage. Aims. We aim to characterize the distribution and composition of circumstellar material around young massive stars and to investigate exactly which physical structures in these objects are probed by long-baseline mid-infrared interferometric observations. Methods. We used the two-telescope interferometric instrument MIDI of the Very Large Telescope Interferometer of the European Southern Observatory to observe a sample of 24 intermediate-and high-mass young stellar objects in the N band (8-13 μm). We had successful fringe detections for 20 objects and present spectrally-resolved correlated fluxes and visibility levels for projected baselines of up to 128 m. We fit the visibilities with geometric models to derive the sizes of the emitting regions, as well as the orientation and elongation of the circumstellar material. Fourteen objects in the sample show the 10 μm silicate feature in absorption in the total and correlated flux spectra. For 13 of these objects, we were able to fit the correlated flux spectra with a simple absorption model, allowing us to constrain the composition and absorptive properties of the circumstellar material. Results. Nearly all of the massive young stellar objects observed show significant deviations from spherical symmetry at mid-infrared wavelengths. In general, the mid-infrared emission can trace both disks and outflows, and in many cases it may be difficult to disentangle these components on the basis of interferometric data alone, because of the sparse spatial frequency coverage normally provided by current long-baseline interferometers. For the majority of the objects in this sample, the absorption occurs on spatial scales larger than those probed by MIDI. Finally, the physical extent of the mid-infrared emission around these sources is correlated with the total luminosity, albeit with significant scatter. Conclusions. Circumstellar material is ubiquitous at distances < ∼ 100 AU around young massive stars. Long-baseline mid-infrared interferometry provides the resolving power necessary for observing this material directly. However, in particular for deeply-embedded sources, caution must be used when attempting to attribute mid-infrared emission to specific physical structures, such as a circumstellar disk or an outflow.

The abundance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in low-and highmetallicity galaxies has been widely discussed since the time when detailed infrared data for extragalactic objects were first obtained. On the scales of entire galaxies, a smaller PAH abundance in lower-metallicity galaxies is often observed. We study this relationship for star-forming regions in nearby galaxies, for a sample containing more than 200 HII complexes, using spatially-resolved observations from the Herschel Space Observatory and Spitzer Space Telescope. We use a model for the dust emission to estimate the physical parameters (PAH abundance, metallicity, ultraviolet radiation field, etc.) of these complexes. The same correlation of PAH abundance with metallicity, as seen for entire galaxies, is apparently preserved at smaller scales, at least when the Kobulnicky & Kewley metallicity calibration is used. We discuss possible reasons for this correlation, noting that traces of less-effective PAH formation in low-metallicity AGB stars should be smeared out by radial mixing in galactic disks. Effective destruction by the harder and more intensive ultraviolet field in low-metallicity environments is qualitatively consistent with our data, as the ultraviolet field intensity, derived from the infrared photometry, is indeed smaller in HII complexes with lower metallicity.

a b s t r a c tThe effect of light source spectral power distribution on the visual brightness of anthropogenic sky glow is described. Under visual adaptation levels relevant to observing the night sky, namely with dark-adapted (scotopic) vision, blue-rich ("white") sources produce a dramatically greater sky brightness than yellow-rich sources. High correlated color temperature LEDs and metal halide sources produce a visual brightness up to 8 Â brighter than low-pressure sodium and 3 Â brighter than high-pressure sodium when matched lumen-for-lumen and observed nearby. Though the sky brightness arising from blue-rich sources decreases more strongly with distance, the visual sky glow resulting from such sources remains significantly brighter than from yellow sources out to the limits of this study at 300 km.

We present high-resolution (30 mas or 130 au at 4.2 kpc) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array observations at 1.2 mm of the disk around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176 mm1. The disk (AFGL 4176 mm1-main) has a radius of ∼1000 au and contains significant structure, including a spiral arm on its redshifted side. By fitting the spiral with models of logarithmic and Archimedean spirals, we find that the Archimedean spiral with a varying pitch angle best fits its morphology, suggesting that one or more companions may play a role in creating the spiral structure. As well as signatures of rotation across the disk, we observe gas arcs in CH 3 CN connecting to other mm continuum sources in the field, supporting the picture of interactions within a small cluster around AFGL 4176 mm1-main. Using CASSIS LTE modelling of the CH 3 CN K-ladder, we determine the temperature and velocity field across the disk, and thus determine a map of the Toomre stability parameter. Our results indicate that the outer disk is gravitationally unstable and already has or is likely to fragment in the future, possibly producing further companions. These observations provide evidence that disk fragmentation is one possible pathway towards explaining the high fraction of multiple systems around high-mass stars.

The H ii region RCW 120 is a well-known object, which is often considered as a target to verify theoretical models of gas and dust dynamics in the interstellar medium. However, the exact geometry of RCW 120 is still a matter of debate. In this work, we analyse observational data on molecular emission in RCW 120 and show that 13 CO(2-1) and C 18 O(2-1) lines are fitted by a 2D model representing a ring-like face-on structure. The changing of the C 18 O(3-2) line profile from double-peaked to single-peaked from the dense molecular Condensation 1 might be a signature of stalled expansion in this direction. In order to explain a self-absorption dip of the 13 CO(2-1) and 13 CO(3-2) lines, we suggest that RCW 120 is surrounded by a diffuse molecular cloud, and find confirmation of this cloud on a map of interstellar extinction. Optically thick 13 CO(2-1) emission and the infrared 8 µm PAH band form a neutral envelope of the H ii region resembling a ring, while the envelope breaks into separate clumps on images made with optically thin C 18 O(2-1) line and far-infrared dust emission.

Deeply embedded and at distances of several kiloparsecs, massive young stellar objects (MYSOs) present numerous challenges for observation and study. In this work, we present spatially-resolved observations of one MYSO, AFGL 4176, together with survey and literature data, ranging from interferometric observations with VLTI/MIDI in the mid-infrared, to single-dish Herschel measurements in the far-infrared, and sub-millimeter data from APEX. We consider this spatially-resolved, multi-wavelength data set in terms of both radiative transfer and geometric models. We find that the observations are well described by one-dimensional models overall, but there are also substantial deviations from spherical symmetry at scales of tens to hundreds of astronomical units, which are revealed by the mid-infrared interferometric measurements. We use a multiple-component, geometric modeling approach to explain the mid-infrared emission on scales of tens to hundreds of astronomical units, and find the MIDI measurements are well described by a model consisting of a one-dimensional Gaussian halo and an inclined (θ = 60 • ) circumstellar disk extending out to several hundred astronomical units along a position angle of 160 • . Finally, we compare our results both with previous models of this source, and with those of other MYSOs, and discuss the present situation with mid-infrared interferometric observations of massive stars.

The intent of this study is to determine the nature of the star and associated nebulosity S 235 B, which are located in a region of active star formation still heavily obscured by the parent molecular cloud. Low‐resolution (R= 400) long‐slit spectra of the star and nebulosity, and medium‐ (R= 1800) and high‐resolution (R= 60 000) spectra of the central star are presented along with the results of Fabry–Perot interferometric imaging of the entire region. Based on the long‐slit and Fabry–Perot observations, the nebulosity appears to be entirely reflective in nature, with the stellar component S 235 B★ providing most of the illuminating flux. The stellar source itself is classified here as a B1V star, with emission‐line profiles indicative of an accretion disc. S 235 B★ thus belongs to the relatively rare class of early‐type Hebrig Be stars. Based on the intensity of the reflected component, it is concluded that the accretion disc must be viewed nearly edge‐on. Estimates of the accretion rate of S 235 B★ from the width of the Hα profile at 10 per cent of maximum intensity, a method which has been used lately for T Tauri stars and Brown Dwarfs, appear to be inconsistent with the mass outflow rate and accretion rate implied from previous infrared observations by Felli et al., suggesting this empirical law does not extend to higher masses.