HIF-1α protein is increased in malignant tumours of the ocular adnexa, which is associated with an increase in multiple HIF-1α-downstream factors and a trend towards an unfavourable clinical outcome.

, seminar participants at the University of Zurich, participants of the 21 st Colloquium on Personnel Economics in Munich, participants of the annual meeting of the Bildungsökonomischer Ausschuss des Vereins für Socialpolitik in Bern, participants of the 18 th International Labour and Employment Relations Association World Congress in Seoul, participants of the 3 rd Centre for Vocational Education Research Conference in London, and participants of the Conference on VET Research in Lausanne for helpful comments. We also thank Natalie Reid for language consulting and the Swiss Federal Statistical Office for data provision of the Swiss Earnings Structure Survey (contract number 160683 Ref. 431.10-1), the Business Census (contract number 180096 Ref. 511.0-1, used in the Online Appendix), and the Survey of Higher Education Graduates (contract number 160410 Ref. 662.410-1, used in the Online Appendix). Furthermore, this paper benefited from very helpful comments by the editor at Labour Economics, Michele Pellizzari, and two anonymous reviewers. This study is partly funded by the State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) through its Leading House on the Economics of Education, Firm Behavior and Training Policies.

Despite the common view that innovation requires academically educated workers, some countries that strongly emphasize vocational education and training (VET) in their education systems—such as Switzerland and Germany—are highly competitive internationally in terms of innovation. These countries have dual VET programs, that is, upper-secondary-level apprenticeship programs, that combine about three quarters of workplace training with about one quarter of vocational schooling, and design them in such a way that their graduates (i.e., dual apprenticeship-graduates) play crucial roles in innovation processes. Regular updates of VET curricula incorporate the latest technological developments into these curricula, thereby ensuring that dual apprenticeship-graduates possess up-to-date, high-level skills in their chosen occupation. This process allows these graduates to contribute to innovation in firms. Moreover, these graduates acquire broad sets of technical and soft skills that enhance their job mobility and flexibility. Therefore, conventional wisdom notwithstanding, dual apprenticeship-graduates in such countries not only have broad skill sets that accelerate innovation in firms, but also willingly participate in innovation because of their high flexibility and employability. Moreover, Switzerland and Germany have tertiary-level VET institutions that foster innovation. These are universities of applied sciences (UASs), which teach and conduct applied research, thereby helping build a bridge between different types of knowledge (vocational and academic). UAS students have prior vocational knowledge through their dual apprenticeship and acquire applied research skills from UAS professors who usually have both work experience and a doctoral degree from an academic university. Thus UAS graduates combine sound occupational knowledge with applied research knowledge inspired by input from the academic research frontier and from practical research and development (R & D) in firms. Firms employ UAS graduates with their knowledge combination as an important input for R & D. Consequently, regions with a UAS have higher levels of innovation than regions without one. This effect is particularly strong for regions outside major innovation centers and for regions with larger percentages of smaller firms.

This paper develops a novel procedure for proxying economic activity with daytime satellite imagery across time periods and spatial units, for which reliable data on economic activity are otherwise not available. In developing this unique proxy, we apply machine-learning techniques to a historical time series of daytime satellite imagery dating back to 1984. Compared to satellite data on night light intensity, another common economic proxy, our proxy more precisely predicts economic activity at smaller regional levels and over longer time horizons. We demonstrate our measure’s usefulness for the example of Germany, where East German data on economic activity are unavailable for detailed regional levels and historical time series. Our procedure is generalizable to any region in the world, and it has great potential for analyzing historical economic developments, evaluating local policy reforms, and controlling for economic activity at highly disaggregated regional levels in econometric applications.

We analyze the relationship between social gender norms and adolescents' occupational choices by combining regional votes on constitutional amendments on gender equality with job application data from a large job board for apprenticeships. The results show that adolescent males in regions with stronger traditional social gender norms are more likely to apply for typically male occupations. This finding does not hold for females, suggesting that incentivizing men to break the norms and choose gender‐atypical occupations (e.g., in healthcare) can be even more effective in accelerating advancement toward gender equality in the labor market than incentivizing women to choose STEM occupations.

Zusammenfassung Länder mit einer starken Betonung der beruflichen Bildung in ihren Bildungs- und Innovationssystemen, beispielsweise Deutschland und die Schweiz, zählen seit Jahren zu den innovativsten der Welt. Gleichzeitig konstatiert internationale Innovationsforschung, dass ein hoher Akademisierungsgrad (und damit gerade nicht die berufliche Bildung) für starke Innovationsleistungen unabdinglich ist. Wie lässt sich dieser Widerspruch erklären? In diesem Überblicksartikel zeigen Uschi Backes-Gellner und Patrick Lehnert anhand einer Aufarbeitung neuer Forschungserkenntnisse, warum die deutschsprachigen Länder nicht trotz, sondern gerade auch wegen ihres Berufsbildungssystems hochinnovativ sind. Zu den erforderlichen institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen für diesen Effekt gehören dabei die zukunftsorientierte Gestaltung und Aktualisierung von Berufsausbildungscurricula, die Vermittlung von breiten beruflichen (statt engen betriebsspezifischen) Kompetenzen in dualen Berufsausbildungsprogrammen, ein durchlässiges Bildungssystem mit attraktiven Karrierepfaden sowie eine Verknüpfung von tertiärer beruflicher Bildung und angewandter Forschung.

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