Traditional learning approaches are typically based on a linear understanding of causality where the same cause leads to the same effect. In recent years there has been increasing interest in the complexity of nature and living phenomena, with significant insights provided by models of change that are based on a nonlinear understanding of causality, where small causes can lead to big effects and vice versa. In this vein, learning processes seem to be more successful for inducing behavioral change when teaching processes deviate from a linear approach. The differential learning approach takes advantage of fluctuations in a complex system by increasing them through 'no repetition' and 'constantly changing movement tasks' which add stochastic perturbations. Previous research has provided much evidence on the superiority of a differential learning approach for learning single movement techniques, in comparison to repetition-and correctionoriented approaches. In this pilot study, the parallel acquisition and learning of two movement techniques in the sport of football are the objective of investigation. One traditionally trained group and two differentially trained groups (blocked and random) trained for 4 weeks, twice a week, on ball control and shooting at goal tasks. Results supported previous work and revealed significant advantages for both differential groups in the acquisition phase as well as in the learning phase, compared to the traditional group. These data suggest that, instead of following a direct linear path towards the target of a 'to-be-learned' movement technique by means of numerous repetitions and corrections, a differential approach is more beneficial because it perturbs learners towards more functional movement patterns during practice.Keywords: Differential Learning, complex systems, fluctuations, football, movement variability. INTRODUCTIONTraditional models of learning have recently been questioned because of their principles that all learners typically start with the same exercise followed by other identical teaching exercises in order to build up a methodical sequence of exercises followed by all students in order to achieve stipulated learning goals [1]. A similar logic underpins the interpretation of traditional pedagogical principles that all learners need to progress "from easy to hard" or "from simple to complex" exercises. In principle this logic implies the understanding of linear causality as fundamental basis for a linear pedagogy. In a weak version of this approach to learning, linear causality assumes that same causes will lead to same effects. In the strong version (because much more mathematical conditions have to be fulfilled) similar causes will lead to similar effects. In reality these assumptions are associated with models of linear equations in which the result is just a sum of weighted parameters of influence. In practice this approach is accompanied by the breaking up of a sports movement into certain phases or anatomical focuses that are all trained separately...
Creatine kinase (CK) is a marker for muscle cell damage with limited potential as marker for training load in strength training. Recent exercise studies identified cell free DNA (cfDNA) as a marker for aseptic inflammation and cell damage. Here we overserved in a pilot study the acute effects during strength exercise and chronic effects of regular strength training on cfDNA concentrations over a period of four weeks in three training groups applying conservation training (CT) at 60% of the 1 repetition maximum, high intensity-low repetition training (HT) at 90% of the 1 repetition maximum and differential training (DT) at 60% of the 1 repetition maximum. EDTA-plasma samples were collected before every training session, and on the first and last training day repeatedly after every set of exercises. CfDNA increased significantly by 1.62-fold (mean (±SD) before first exercise: 8.31 (2.84) ng/ml, after last exercise 13.48 (4.12) ng/ml) across all groups within a single training session (p<0.001). The increase was 1.77-fold higher (mean (±SD) before first exercise: 12.23 (6.29) ng/ml, after last exercise 17.73 (11.24) ng/ml) in HT compared to CT (mean (±SD) before first exercise: 6.79 (1.28) ng/ml, after last exercise 10.05 (2.89) ng/ml) (p = 0.01). DNA size analysis suggested predominant release of short, mononucleosomal DNA-fragments in the acute exercise setting, while we detected an increase of mostly longer, polynucleosomal cfDNA-fragments at rest before the training session only at day two with a subsequent return to baseline (p<0.001). In contrast, training procedures did not cause any alterations in CK. Our results suggest that during strength exercise short-fragmented cfDNA is released, reflecting a fast, aseptic inflammatory response, while elevation of longer fragments at baseline on day two seemed to reflect mild cellular damage due to a novel training regime. We critically discuss the implications of our findings for future evaluations of cfDNA as a marker for training load in strength training.
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