Plants and animals affect stream morphodynamics across a range of scales, yet including biological traits of organisms in geomorphic process models remains a fundamental challenge. For example, laboratory experiments have shown that silk nets built by caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae) can increase the shear stress required to initiate bed motion by more than a factor of 2. The contributions of specific biological traits are not well understood, however. Here we develop a theoretical model for the effects of insect nets on the threshold of sediment motion, τ * crit , that accounts for the mechanical properties, geometry, and vertical distribution of insect silk, as well as interactions between insect species. To parameterize the model, we measure the tensile strength, diameter, and number of silk threads in nets built by two common species of caddisfly, Arctopsyche californica and Ceratopsyche oslari. We compare model predictions with new measurements of τ* crit in experiments where we varied grain size and caddisfly species composition. The model is consistent with experimental results for single species, which show that the increase in τ * crit above the abiotic control peaks at 40-70% for 10-22 mm sediments and declines with increasing grain size. For the polyculture experiments, however, the model underpredicts the measured increase in τ * crit when two caddisfly species are present in sediments of larger grain sizes. Overall, the model helps explain why the presence of caddisfly silk can substantially increase the forces needed to initiate sediment motion in gravel-bedded streams and also illustrates the challenge of parameterizing the behavior of multiple interacting species in a physical model.

Transition of the current gasoline-based transportation system into a renewable fuel-based clean vehicle system has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve national energy security. However, the realized net environmental benefit or energy security improvement is tightly linked to the electrical grid mix (for electric cars and plug-in hybrids) and fueling strategy (for cars using alternative liquid fuels). In addition, different types of transportation fuels have significantly different demands on land resources, both on land type and quantity. For example, biofuel production requires large quantities of agricultural land, while wind farms require land with sufficient wind density. Furthermore, there is substantial regional variation in the quality of necessary resources. Regions with higher wind speeds require less land to produce the same amount of electricity than those with lower wind speed, assuming the same turbine design. Similarly, regions with optimal soil conditions and climate for crop cultivation require less land to produce the same amount of biofuel. To enable comparison of land demand among different fuel choices for clean vehicles, this research provides a county-scale assessment of land demand