The fitness and the dynamics of demethylation inhibitor fungicide (DMI) sensitivity in isolates of Monilinia fructicola sensitive (no growth at 0.3 mg/liter propiconazole) and resistant (>/=50% relative growth at 0.3 mg/liter propiconazole) to propiconazole were investigated. Overall, there was no considerable compromise in the fitness of resistant isolates compared to sensitive isolates of M. fructicola at the time of collection. Resistant and sensitive isolates differed in their sensitivity to propiconazole (P < 0.001) and incubation period (P = 0.044), but not in latent period, growth rate, spore production, and spore germination frequency (P > 0.05). Consecutive transferring on potato dextrose agar had an impact on conidia production, conidial germination, and growth rate (P < 0.0001). Consecutive transferring also had an impact on propiconazole sensitivity in resistant isolates. In the resistant isolates, sensitivity to propiconazole increased (R(2) = 0.960, P = 0.0034) within the first eight transfers. Similarly, sensitivity to propiconazole increased by 273% over the course of 34 months in cold storage in propiconazole-resistant isolates. Our results show that propiconazole resistance is unstable in vitro and that standard subculturing and cold storage procedures impact propiconazole sensitivity of resistant isolates. The instability of propiconazole resistance in M. fructicola may have important implications for disease management in that a reversion to propiconazole sensitivity could potentially occur in the absence of DMI fungicide pressure in the field.

Single-spore isolates of Monilinia fructicola were collected from commercial orchards in South Carolina and Georgia with prolonged past exposure to demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides and from an orchard with no DMI history (baseline population). Sensitivity to propiconazole was determined using the concentration in agar media required to suppress radial growth of mycelium by 50% (EC50. Mean EC50 values from six South Carolina populations were not different from the baseline population (P < 0.05). Two of five populations from Georgia revealed (significantly higher mean EC50 values compared with the baseline population (P < 0.05). Isolates with high (AP5 and AP6) and low (DL71 and DL72) EC50 values were selected to determine disease incidence on peach fruit after protective or curative applications of propiconazole at 0.15 or 0.3 liter/ha (half and full label rate, respectively). Disease incidence was significantly greater on peaches inoculated with AP5 and AP6 after curative treatment with propiconazole at 0.15 liter/ha (P < 0.05). Following protective or curative treatments at 0.3 liter/ha, disease incidence was significantly greater for AP6 but not for AP5. These results suggest that a shift toward reduced sensitivity has developed in some M. fructicola populations from Georgia, and that isolates with reduced sensitivity to propiconazole are more difficult to control in the field. Field testing of DMI fungicides, captan, QoI fungicides, and fenhexamid in experimental orchards) indicated that the DMI fungicides are still among the most efficacious products for brown rot (control, and that new products containing QoI fungicides may be viable disease control alternatives or rotation partners.

The sensitivity to seven chemical classes of fungicides was investigated in 1,810 Botrytis cinerea isolates collected from strawberry blossoms and fruit in 181 strawberry fields from seven southern states in the United States across 2 years. Ten isolates were examined from each field. Fungicide sensitivity assays were carried out based on visual assessment of diametrical mycelial growth after 4 days of incubation on media amended with discriminatory doses of fungicides in microtiter plates. Results of visual assessments were verified with selected isolates using a previously published germination assay and by inoculating representative isolates with resistant phenotypes on fungicide-sprayed fruit. The overall resistance frequencies of 750 isolates collected in 2012 for thiophanate-methyl, pyraclostrobin, boscalid, cyprodinil, fenhexamid, iprodione, and fludioxonil were 76, 42, 29, 27, 25, 3, and 1%, respectively. Frequencies of 1,060 isolates collected in 2013 were 85, 59, 5, 17, 26, 2, and 1%, respectively. Resistance to thiophanate-methyl and pyraclostrobin was found in virtually every location in both years, whereas resistance to iprodione and fludioxonil was rarely found. Resistant isolates were resistant to either one (23%), two (18%), three (19%), four (14%), five (3%), or six (0.1%) chemical classes of fungicides in 2012. In 2013, this distribution was 24, 29, 26, 8, 2, and 0.3%, respectively. Multifungicide-resistant isolates of B. cinerea were widespread in southern states and evidence suggests that the frequency of isolates with multifungicide resistance increased from 2012 to 2013. The data also show that fungicide resistance in B. cinerea was already present in blossoms, indicating that resistance management needs to be implemented early in the season.

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Synergists were used to diagnose possible mechanisms of permethrin resistance in permethrin-selected strains of the tobacco budworm, Heliothis uirescens (F.). In addition to permethrin, these strains of the tobacco budworm were resistant to a-cyano-pyrethroid insecticides, organophosphorus insecticides and DDT. The monooxygenase-inhibiting prop-2-ynyl aryl ethers were the only effective synergists of permethrin among 16 candidates tested. The most effective synergist was 1,2,4-trichloro-3-(2-propynyloxy)benzene. Piperonyl butoxide, a common monooxygenase-inhibiting synergist in other species and tobacco budworm strains, was inactive. These results suggested the presence and contribution of an unusual monooxygenase in the enzymatic detoxication of permethrin. DDT cross-resistance, which was not synergized, and broad pyrethroid cross-resistance supported previous evidence for target site insensitivity as a second pyrethroid-resistance mechanism in these strains. The actions of S,S,Stributyl phosphorotrithioate (TBPT) and triphenyl phosphate (TPP) suggested that hydrolytic detoxication, important in methyl parathion-resistance tobacco budworm strains, had little or no role in conferring pyrethroid resistance in these strains.