Graphical abstract

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) are produced abundantly and are frequently used as a white pigment in the manufacture of paints, foods, paper, and toothpaste. Despite the wide ranges of uses, there is a lack of information on the impact of NPs on animal and human health. In the present study, rats were exposed to different doses of TiO2 nanoparticles and sacrificed, respectively, 4 days, 1 month, and 2 months after treatment. Dosage of TiO2 in tissues was performed by ICP-AES and revealed an important accumulation of TiO2 in the liver. The nanoparticles induced morphological and physiological alterations in liver and kidney. In the liver, these alterations mainly affect the hepatocytes located around the centrilobular veins. These cells were the site of an oxidative stress evidenced by immunocytochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Kupffer cells are also the site of an important oxidative stress following the massive internalization of TiO2 nanoparticles. Enzymatic markers of liver and kidney functions (such as AST and uric acid) are also disrupted only in animals exposed to highest doses. The metabonomic approach allowed us to detect modifications in urine samples already detectable after 4 days in animals treated at the lowest dose. This metabonomic pattern testifies an oxidative stress as well as renal and hepatic alterations.