Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Heritability and polygenic predictionIn the EUR sample, the SNP-based heritability (h 2 SNP ) (that is, the proportion of variance in liability attributable to all measured SNPs)

SUMMARY At a synapse, fast synchronous neurotransmitter release requires localization of Ca2+-channels to presynaptic active zones. How Ca2+-channels are recruited to active zones, however, remains unknown. Using unbiased yeast two-hybrid screens, we here identify a direct interaction of the central PDZ-domain of the active-zone protein RIM with the C-termini of presynaptic N- and P/Q-type Ca2+-channels, but not L-type Ca2+-channels. To test the physiological significance of this interaction, we generated conditional knockout mice lacking all presynaptic RIM isoforms. Deletion of all RIMs ablated most neurotransmitter release by simultaneously impairing the priming of synaptic vesicles and by decreasing the presynaptic localization of Ca2+-channels. Strikingly, rescue of the decreased Ca2+-channel localization required the RIM PDZ-domain, whereas rescue of vesicle priming required the RIM N-terminus. We propose that RIMs tether N- and P/Q-type Ca2+-channels to presynaptic active zones via a direct PDZ-domain mediated interaction, thereby enabling fast, synchronous triggering of neurotransmitter release at a synapse.

Graphical Abstract Highlights d SynGO is a public knowledge base and online analysis platform for synapse research d SynGO has annotated 1,112 genes with synaptic localization and/or function d SynGO genes are exceptionally large, well conserved, and intolerant to mutations d SynGO genes are strongly enriched among genes associated with brain disorders Correspondence guus.smit@cncr.vu.nl (A.B.S.), matthijs@cncr.vu.nl (M.V.) In BriefThe SynGO consortium presents a framework to annotate synaptic protein locations and functions and annotations for 1,112 synaptic genes based on published experimental evidence. SynGO reports exceptional features and disease associations for synaptic genes and provides an online data analysis platform. SUMMARYSynapses are fundamental information-processing units of the brain, and synaptic dysregulation is central to many brain disorders (''synaptopathies''). However, systematic annotation of synaptic genes and ontology of synaptic processes are currently lacking. We established SynGO, an interactive knowledge base that accumulates available research about synapse biology using Gene Ontology (GO) annotations to novel ontology terms: 87 synaptic locations and 179 synaptic processes. SynGO annotations are exclusively based on published, expert-curated evidence. Using 2,922 annotations for 1,112 genes, we show that synaptic genes are exceptionally well conserved and less tolerant to mutations than other genes. Many SynGO terms are significantly overrepresented among gene variations associated with intelligence, educational attainment, ADHD, autism, and bipolar disorder and among de novo variants associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia. SynGO is a public, universal reference for synapse research and an online analysis platform for interpretation of large-scale -omics data (https://syngoportal.org and

Most neuronal communication relies upon the synchronous release of neurotransmitters, which occurs through synaptic vesicle exocytosis triggered by action potential invasion of a presynaptic bouton. However, neurotransmitters are also released asynchronously with a longer, variable delay following an action potential or spontaneously in the absence of action potentials. A compelling body of research has identified roles and mechanisms for synchronous release, but asynchronous release and spontaneous release are less well understood. In this review, we analyze how the mechanisms of the three release modes overlap and what molecular pathways underlie asynchronous and spontaneous release. We conclude that the modes of release have key fusion processes in common but may differ in the source of and necessity for Ca2+ to trigger release and in the identity of the Ca2+ sensor for release.

At presynaptic active zones, neurotransmitter release is initiated by the opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels close to docked vesicles. The mechanisms that enrich Ca2+ channels at active zones are, however, largely unknown, possibly because of the limited presynaptic accessibility of most synapses. Here, we have established a Cre-lox based conditional knock-out approach at a presynaptically accessible CNS synapse, the calyx of Held, to directly study the functions of RIM proteins. Removal of all RIM1/2 isoforms strongly reduced the presynaptic Ca2+ channel density, revealing a new role of RIM proteins in Ca2+ channel targeting. Removal of RIMs also reduced the readily-releasable pool, paralleled by a similar reduction of the number of docked vesicles, and the Ca2+ channel - vesicle coupling was decreased. Thus, RIM proteins co-ordinately regulate key functions for fast transmitter release: enabling a high presynaptic Ca2+ channel density, and vesicle docking at the active zone.

At a synapse, the presynaptic active zone mediates synaptic vesicle exocytosis. RIM proteins are active-zone scaffolding molecules that – among others – mediate vesicle priming, and directly or indirectly interact with most other essential presynaptic proteins. In particular, the Zn2+-finger domain of RIMs binds to the C2A-domain of the priming factor Munc13, which forms a homodimer in the absence of RIM, but a heterodimer with it. Here we show that RIMs mediate vesicle priming not by coupling Munc13 to other active zone proteins as thought, but by directly activating Munc13. Specifically, we found that the isolated Zn2+-finger domain of RIMs autonomously promotes vesicle priming by binding to Munc13, thereby relieving Munc13 homodimerization. Strikingly, constitutively monomeric mutants of Munc13 rescued priming in RIM-deficient synapses, whereas wild-type Munc13 did not. Both mutant and wild-type Munc13, however, rescued priming in Munc13-deficient synapses. Thus, homodimerization of Munc13 inhibits its priming function, and RIMs activate priming by disrupting Munc13 homodimerization.

Spatial mapping of proteins in tissues is hindered by limitations in multiplexing, sensitivity, and throughput. Here we report immunostaining with signal amplification by exchange reaction (Immuno-SABER), which achieves highly multiplexed signal amplification via DNA-barcoded antibodies and orthogonal DNA concatemers generated by primer exchange reactions (PER). SABER offers independently programmable signal amplification without in situ enzymatic reactions, and intrinsic scalability to rapidly amplify and visualize a large number of targets when combined with fast exchange cycles of fluorescent imager strands. We demonstrated 5–180-fold signal amplification in diverse samples (cultured cells, and FFPE, cryosectioned or whole mount tissues), and simultaneous signal amplification for 10 different proteins using standard equipment and workflows. We also combined SABER with expansion microscopy to enable rapid, multiplexed super-resolution tissue imaging. Immuno-SABER presents an effective and accessible platform for multiplexed and amplified imaging of proteins with high sensitivity and throughput.

Dopamine controls essential brain functions through volume transmission. Different from fast synaptic transmission, where neurotransmitter release and receptor activation are tightly coupled by an active zone, dopamine transmission is widespread and may not necessitate these organized release sites. Here, we determine whether striatal dopamine secretion employs specialized machinery for release. Using super resolution microscopy, we identified co-clustering of the active zone scaffolding proteins bassoon, RIM and ELKS in ∼30% of dopamine varicosities. Conditional RIM knockout disrupted this scaffold and, unexpectedly, abolished dopamine release, while ELKS knockout had no effect. Optogenetic experiments revealed that dopamine release was fast and had a high release probability, indicating the presence of protein scaffolds for coupling Ca influx to vesicle fusion. Hence, dopamine secretion is mediated by sparse, mechanistically specialized active zone-like release sites. This architecture supports spatially and temporally precise coding for dopamine and provides molecular machinery for regulation.