Indirect taxes contribute to a sizeable part of government revenues around the world. Typically there are few different tax rates, and the goods are partitioned into classes associated with each rate. The present paper studies how to group the goods in these few classes. We take as given the number of tax rates and study the optimal aggregation (or classification) of commodities of the fiscal authority in a second best setup. The results are illustrated on data from the United Kingdom.Les impôts indirects forment une part notable des recettes fiscales. D'ordinaire, on observe un petit nombre de taux différents, et les biens sont répartis en classes associéesà chacun de ces taux. Onétudie ici comment grouper les biens au mieux. Le nombre de taux est supposé fixé de manière exogène, et on résout le problème d'agrégation (ou de classement) optimal des biens dans un cadre de second rang. Les résultats sont illustrés sur des données britanniques.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical evaluation of theoretical models showing that shifting from pay-as-you-go to fully funded social security schemes can be made Pareto-improving. Further, it argues that what often makes a reform towards funded schemes attractive is a number of additional features that could also have been introduced in the unfunded social security system. The paper is organized in three main sections. The first one presents a taxonomy of social security systems; this allows us to show that in privatization programmes the issue is not just moving from unfunded to funded mechanisms but also, and above all, to individualize the system in such a way that there is no more redistribution. The second shows that funded and pay-as-you-go schemes are equivalent as long as the payroll taxes paid during the period of inception of the pay-as-yougo scheme are duly invested. Finally, the third section presents two models of Pareto-improving social security reforms ... The purpose of this paper is to provide a critical evaluation of theoretical models showing that shifting from pay-as-you-go to fully funded social security schemes can be made Pareto-improving. Further, it argues that what often makes a reform towards funded schemes attractive is a number of additional features that could also have been introduced in the unfunded social security system. The paper is organized in three main sections. The ®rst one presents a taxonomy of social security systems; this allows us to show that in privatization programmes the issue is not just moving from unfunded to funded mechanisms but also, and above all, to individualize the system in such a way that there is no more redistribution. The second shows that funded and pay-as-you-go schemes are equivalent as long as the payroll taxes paid during the period of inception of the pay-as-you-go scheme are duly invested. Finally, the third section presents two models of Pareto-improving social security reforms and discusses the assumptions on which they rely.
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