Following the boom in durum wheat breeding, ancient wheat disappeared from the human diet and old durum wheat varieties were replaced by what is believed to be their better versions: higher yielding modern varieties grown in high-input systems. Breeders have worked intensely ever since to improve the quality of durum wheat traits -mainly gluten subunit alleles -to obtain superior technological quality in the main durum wheat end products (first pasta and then bread) but conflicts about predicting their quality still exist. This is because quality is neither governed by one trait alone nor conditioned by a single controllable factor. This review discusses the evolution of wheat varieties from ancient to old, and then modern durum wheat in terms of agronomy, genetics, technological, and end-product qualities. Environmental effects will not be discussed. Moving from ancient to modern durum wheat varieties, grain yield increased, grain protein concentration decreased, and gluten strength and dough toughness improved, ameliorating the quality of pasta but decreasing the durum wheat versatility.
Wheat flour replacement from 22.5% up to 45% by incorporation of ternary blends of teff (T), 25 green pea (GP) and buckwheat (BW) flours provided technologically viable and acceptable sensory rated 26 multigrain breads with superior nutritional value compared to the 100% wheat flour (WT) counterparts. 27Blended breads exhibited superior nutritional composition, larger amounts of bioaccessible polyphenols, 28 higher anti-radical activity, and lower and slower starch digestibility. Simultaneous lower rapidly digestible 29 starch (57.1%) and higher slowly digestible starch (12.9%) and resistant starch (2.8%) contents (g per 100 g 30 fresh bread), considered suitable nutritional trends for dietary starch fractions, were met by the blend 31 formulated 7.5% T, 15% GP, 15% BK. The associated mixture that replaced 37.5% WT, showed a rather 32 lower extent and slower rate of starch hydrolysis with medium-low values for C∞, and H90, and lowest k, and 33 intermediate expected Glycaemic Index (86). All multigrain breads can be labelled as source of dietary fibre 34 (≥3 g dietary fibre/100 g bread). A slow release and absorption of glucose may be generated in a food matrix according to the 56 processing conditions and surrounding ingredients (Lehmann & Robin, 2007), encompassing beneficial 57 effects in the management of diabetes and hyperlipidemia (Jenkins, 2007). Native cereal starches are ideal 58 sources of slowly digestible starch (SDS) (>50%), and the slow progressive digestion property is realized by 59 a layer-by-layer inside-outside (radial) digestion process (Zhang, Ao, & Hamaker., 2006a). Mechanical and 60 thermal treatments change the structure and digestibility of starch. Thermal treatments such as the cooking 61 process completely destroys the semicrystalline structure of native starch granules and causes the loss of 62 SDS and resistant starch (RS) and increases rapid digestible starch (RDS) (Zhang, Venkatachalam, & 63 Hamaker, 2006b). In cereal products, the starch gelatinisation extent, which is mainly controlled by the 64 moisture level and the cooking time and temperature influences the formation of SDS (Englyst, Vinory, 65 Englyst, & Lang, 2003). In bread dough, although formation of resistant starch (RS3) may occur in the high 66 water-containing parts during cooling, a large portion of starch is gelatinised during cooking and induces a 67 rapid digestibility of starch (Bravo, Englyst, & Hudson, 1998). In extruded cooked cereal products such as 68 breakfast cereals, in addition to the thermal treatment, the high pressure and shear forces destroy the 69 starch granular structure and increase its gelatinisation extent, making it more available to amylolytic 70 enzymes (Le François, 1989). On the contrary, in pasta, a dense protein network is formed, which limits the 71 accessibility of α-amylase to the starch and restricts the diffusion of water molecules to the starch granules. 72 4 As a consequence, a reduction of the extent of starch gelatinisation takes place (Englyst et al., 1992). 73Fu...
The present study investigates the effect of partial or total substitution of rice flour (RF) with quinoa flour (QF) (at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) on the chemical-physical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics, as well as the volatile compounds, of ladyfinger biscuits. All quinoa-based formulations positively affected the crust colour, endowing it with lower ‘lightness’ and higher ‘redness’ values, giving the biscuits a more appealing crust colour. Biscuits with higher percentages of QF also had better structure, as they were softer. The substitution of RF with QF significantly improved the nutritional profile of the biscuits, as a result of the increase in protein, lipid, ash, total soluble (SP) and insoluble polyphenol (IP), flavonoid, and antioxidant activity levels, which increased linearly with the substitution rate. Quinoa supplementation led to an increase in volatile compounds that were nearly always characterised by positive olfactory attributes. Sensory analysis revealed that the maximal substitution rate of QF able to maintain an adequate consumer acceptability rating is probably 50%, as higher percentages impaired acceptability due to the presence of herbaceous and bitter tastes, even if the consumers also rated these samples as healthier and softer to touch.
The presence of gluten is considered fundamental for successful breadmaking. However, the ingestion of gluten by susceptible individuals has been associated with the development of gluten-related disorders such as celiac disease, wheat allergy, and non-celiac gluten sensitivity. The elimination of gluten from cereal-based baked products has a detrimental effect on the breadmaking process and sensory properties, and raises technological challenges in terms of making good quality leavened bread. The use of non-gluten raw materials changes the rheological behaviour of the gluten-free dough, which may result in different processing performance and associated post-baking quality of the obtained bread. Gluten-free bread tends to have a poor visual texture characteristics, a low nutritional value, reduced mouthfeel and fl avour, as well as a shorter shelf-life. The aim of this review is to present the main problems related to gluten-free breadmaking technology and to summarise recent fi ndings in the improvement of the technological, nutritional, and sensory properties of gluten-free bread. A great deal of this review focuses on the development of novel and healthy gluten-free breads formulated with fl ours, starches, hydrocolloids, and alternative nutrient-dense raw materials, which should fulfi l all quality requirements for bakery products as well as meet the needs of celiac consumers.
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