Emotion regulation has emerged as a popular topic, but there is doubt about its viability as a scientific construct. This article identifies conceptual and methodological challenges in this area of study and describes exemplar studies that provide a substantive basis for inferring emotion regulation. On the basis of those studies, 4 methods are described that provide compelling evidence for emotion regulation: independent measurement of activated emotion and purported regulatory processes; analysis of temporal relations; measurement across contrasting conditions; and multiple, convergent measures. By offering this perspective, this article aims to engage thoughtful debate and critical analysis, with the goal of increasing methodological rigor and advancing an understanding of emotion regulation as a scientific construct.

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The present study examined gender differences in children's submissive and disharmonious emotions and parental attention to these emotions. Sixty children and their mothers and fathers participated when children were 4 and 6 years old. Children's emotion expression and parental responses during a game were coded. Girls expressed more submissive emotion than boys. Fathers attended more to girls' submissive emotion than to boys' at preschool age. Fathers attended more to boys' disharmonious emotion than to girls' at early school age. Parental attention at preschool age predicted later submissive expression level. Child disharmonious emotion predicted later externalizing symptoms. Gender differences in these emotions may occur as early as preschool age and may be subject to differential responding, particularly by fathers.

Parental emotions and behaviors that contribute to continuity and change in preschool children's externalizing problems were examined. Mothers and fathers were observed interacting with their children, and child-rearing styles were reported. Teachers, mothers, and children reported children's antisocial, oppositional behavior. Externalizing problems showed strong continuity 2 and 4 years later. Proactive parenting (i.e., supportive presence, clear instruction, and limit setting) predicted fewer behavior problems over time, after controlling for initial problems; the converse was true for parental anger. In contrast, the hypothesized ameliorative contribution of parents' positive emotion was not found. Parental contributions were most influential for children whose initial problems were in the clinical range. In particular, parental anger predicted continuation of problems over time. Paternal, as well as maternal, influences were identified. Examination of parental emotions and inclusion of fathers is important to research and intervention with young antisocial children.

Clinical conceptualizations of emotion that stress its disruptive influences and functional models of emotion that emphasize its adaptive aspects can be integrated into a developmental psychopathology framework. Under certain conditions, emotion regulation may develop dysregulatory aspects that can become a characteristic of an individual's coping style. This style may then jeopardize or impair functioning and become associated with symptomatic, disordered functioning. Emotional development provides a critical vantage point from which to study the development of symptomatology and psychopathology, particularly given the prevalence of emotional symptoms in various forms of psychopathology. Dimensions of emotionality that can be used to characterize dysregulation include access to the range of emotions, flexible modulation of intensity, duration, and transitions between emotions, acquisition and use of cultural display rules, and the ability to reflect on the complexity and value of one's own emotions in a self-supporting manner. Developmental psychopathology provides a framework within which to examine how emotions are regulatory, how their regulation changes over time, and under what conditions an adaptive emotion process can develop into a pattern of dysregulation that then becomes, or sustains, some symptoms of mental disorders. Such research requires samples that include children with and without risk or presence of particular mental health problems, paradigms that allow the examination of dimensions of emotionality in context and provide multiple assessments that include observations of children's reactions beyond what they themselves can report, and analyses that extend beyond simple global aggregates such as positive and negative emotion. We believe that it is particularly important to study children and their families in situations that challenge their emotional adaptation. The developmental tasks of emotional life evolve in exchanges between the child and the world of events and relationships. The emotional conditions of early childhood appear to be very important in optimizing or interfering with how the child's emotionality regulates his or her interpersonal and intrapsychic functioning and how the child learns to regulate emotion. The experiences that accrue around emotional events influence the stable aspects of the developing personality and become trait-like aspects of the person (Malatesta & Wilson, 1988). Dysregulation occurs when an emotional reaction loses breadth and flexibility. If a dysregulatory pattern becomes stabilized and part of the emotional repertoire, it is likely that this pattern is a symptom and supports other symptoms. When development and adaptation are compromised, the dysregulation has evolved into a form of psychopathology. The line between normative variations and clinical conditions is not clearly drawn.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

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The effects of child sexual abuse have become a leading concern of mental health service providers. Despite an explosion of studies, one major difficulty in this research is the lack of a developmentally sensitive model for conceptualizing short- and long-term effects and continuity and discontinuity of effects over time. This article proposes a model based in the perspective of developmental psychopathology. It is argued that incest has its unique negative effects in the domains of self and social functioning, specifically in jeopardizing self-definition and integration, self-regulatory processes, and a sense of security and trust in relationships. Studies with clinical samples indicate that diagnostic conditions associated uniquely with a history of incest reflect serious self- and social impairments. A review of the developmental literature on self and social development summarizes each major developmental transition from infancy to middle adulthood, and the implications for the negative effects of incest on development are discussed. Finally, implications for developmentally sensitive research are discussed.

ICRONUTRIENT INADequacy is a critical concern among pregnant women and young children throughout the world. Gestation and the early postnatal period are considered sensitive periods for brain development, and nutritional deprivation during this period may lead to functional impairments. Early iron deficiency can alter neuroanatomy, biochemistry, and metabolism, leading to changes in neurophysiologic processes that support cognitive and sensorimotor development. 1,2 It also has an adverse effect on neurogenesis, altering brain morphology in specific regions such as the hippocampus and striatum. 3,4 In addition, the timing of iron availability for myelin production, especially to oligodendrocytes, is critical 5 ; hypomyelination due to iron deficiency persists later in life. 6,7 Iron deficiency also alters neurochemistry, specifically monoamine transmission, reception, and metabolism. 6 Finally, iron is important for energy metabolism in the brain. 2,8 Abnormal cerebral energy metabolism, as measured via loss of cytochrome c oxidase in the hippocampus and frontal cortex 9 and via mag-Author Affiliations are listed at the end of this article.