(TSA) induces GFP activation in GFP(؊) cells and can also increase GFP expression in GFP(؉) cells. In the case of the GFP(؊)populations, we found that after removal of TSA, GFP silencing was reestablished in a subset of cells. We used that finding to enrich for stable GFP(؊) cell populations in which viral GFP reporter expression could be reactivated by TSA; furthermore, we found that the ability to isolate such populations was independent of the promoter driving the GFP gene. In such enriched cultures, hCMV IE-driven, but not the viral long terminal repeat-driven, silent GFP reporter expression could be reactivated by the transcriptional activator prostratin. Microscopy-based studies using synchronized cells revealed variegated reactivation in cell clones, indicating that secondary epigenetic effects can restrict reactivation from silencing. Furthermore we found that entry into S phase was not required for reactivation. We conclude that HDACs can act rapidly to initiate and maintain promoter-independent retroviral epigenetic repression and silencing but that reactivation can be restricted by additional mechanisms.

IntroductionNeu (HER2/ErbB2) is overexpressed in 25% to 30% of human breast cancer, correlating with a poor prognosis. Researchers in previous studies who used the mouse mammary tumor virus Neu-transgenic mouse model (MMTV-Neu) demonstrated that the Neu-YB line had increased production of CXCL12 and increased metastasis, whereas the Neu-YD line had decreased metastasis. In this study, we examined the role of increased production of CXCL12 in tumor cell invasion and malignancy.MethodsWe studied invasion in the tumor microenvironment using multiphoton intravital imaging, in vivo invasion and intravasation assays. CXCL12 signaling was altered by using the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100 or by increasing CXCL12 expression. The role of macrophage signaling in vivo was determined using a colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R) blocking antibody.ResultsThe Neu-YD strain was reduced in invasion, intravasation and metastasis compared to the Neu-YB and Neu deletion mutant (activated receptor) strains. Remarkably, in the Neu-YB strain, in vivo invasion to epidermal growth factor was dependent on both CXCL12-CXCR4 and CSF1-CSF-1R signaling. Neu-YB tumors had increased macrophage and microvessel density. Overexpression of CXCL12 in rat mammary adenocarcinoma cells increased in vivo invasion as well as microvessel and macrophage density.ConclusionsExpression of CXCL12 by tumor cells results in increased macrophage and microvessel density and in vivo invasiveness.

No abstract

It has been generally believed that oncoretroviruses are dependent on mitosis for efficient nuclear entry of viral DNA. We previously identified a nuclear localization signal in the integrase protein of an oncoretrovirus, avian sarcoma virus (ASV), suggesting an active import mechanism for the integrase-DNA complex (G. Kukolj, R. A. Katz, and A. M. Skalka, Gene 223:157-163, 1998). Here, we have evaluated the requirement for mitosis in nuclear import and integration of ASV DNA. Using a modified ASV encoding a murine leukemia virus amphotropic env gene and a green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene, DNA nuclear import was measured in cell cycle-arrested avian (DF-1) as well as human (HeLa) and mouse cells. The results showed efficient accumulation of nuclear forms of ASV DNA in ␥-irradiation-arrested cells. Efficient transduction of a GFP reporter gene was also observed after infection of cells that were arrested with ␥-irradiation, mitomycin C, nocodazole, or aphidicolin, confirming that nuclear import and integration of ASV DNA can occur in the absence of mitosis. By monitoring GFP expression in individual cells, we also obtained evidence for nuclear import of viral DNA during interphase in cycling cells. Lastly, we observed that ASV can transduce postmitotic mouse neurons. These results support an active nuclear import mechanism for the oncoretrovirus ASV and suggest that this mechanism can operate in both nondividing and dividing cells.Early events in the retroviral replication cycle include reverse transcription of the viral RNA and integration of the resulting viral DNA genome into the host cell chromosomes (6, 12). These two steps are catalyzed by the viral enzymes reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN), which are carried into the cell within the virion capsid. In addition to the enzymatic steps, these early events require trafficking of the viral DNA, which is synthesized in the cytoplasm, to sites of integration in the host cell chromosomes in the nucleus. The precursor to the integrated viral DNA is a linear doublestranded DNA which is found in a subviral preintegration complex that contains IN, as well as other host and viral proteins. It is likely that all retroviruses utilize active mechanisms (as opposed to passive diffusion) for subcellular trafficking of viral DNA, and such movement may be facilitated by interactions between the preintegration complex and host cell factors or structures. As efficient and stable expression of viral DNA requires integration into the host chromosome, the transport of viral DNA to an integration site is essential to complete the early steps in infection. Integration of the viral DNA marks a transition to late steps that include synthesis of viral RNAs and proteins, followed by assembly and budding of progeny particles.The nuclear membrane is a potential barrier for movement of retroviral DNA (in the preintegration complex) to the chromosomal integration sites. In dividing cells, which are progressing through the cell cycle (G1 3 S 3 G 2 3 M), the nuclear me...

Many malignancies show increased expression of the EGF receptor family member ErbB3 (HER3). ErbB3 binds beta-1 (HRGβ1), and forms a heterodimer with other ErbB family members, such as ErbB2 (HER2) or EGFR (HER1), enhancing phosphorylation of specific C terminal tyrosine residues and activation of downstream signaling pathways. ErbB3 contains six YXXM motifs that bind the p85 subunit of PI3-kinase. Previous studies demonstrated that overexpression of ErbB3 in mammary tumor cells can significantly enhance chemotaxis to HRGβ1 and overall metastatic potential. We tested the hypothesis that ErbB3-mediated PI3-kinase signaling is critical for heregulin-induced motility, and therefore crucial for ErbB3-mediated invasion, intravasation and metastasis. The tyrosines in the six YXXM motifs on the ErbB3 C-terminus were replaced with phenylalanine. In contrast to overexpression of the wild-type ErbB3, overexpression of the mutant ErbB3 did not enhance chemotaxis towards HRGβ1 in vitro or in vivo. We also observed reduced tumor cell motility in the primary tumor by multiphoton microscopy, as well as a dramatically reduced ability of these cells to cross the endothelium and intravasate into the circulation. Moreover, while mutation of the ErbB3 C-terminus had no effect on tumor growth, it had a dramatic effect on spontaneous metastatic potential. Treatment with the PI3-kinase inhibitor PIK-75 similarly inhibited motility and invasion in vitro and in vivo. Our results indicate that stimulation of the early metastatic steps of motility and invasion by ErbB3 requires activation of the PI3-kinase pathway by the ErbB3 receptor.