Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are endotoxins, hazardous and toxic inflammatory stimulators released from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and are the major cause of septic shock giving rise to millions of fatal illnesses worldwide. There is an urgent need to identify and detect these molecules selectively and rapidly. Pathogen detection has been done by traditional as well as biosensor-based methods. Nanomaterial based biosensors can assist in achieving these goals and have tremendous potential. The biosensing techniques developed are low-cost, easy to operate, and give a fast response. Due to extremely small size, large surface area, and scope for surface modification, nanomaterials have been used to target various biomolecules, including LPS. The sensing mechanism can be quite complex and involves the transformation of chemical interactions into amplified physical signals. Many different sorts of nanomaterials such as metal nanomaterials, magnetic nanomaterials, quantum dots, and others have been used for biosensing of LPS and have shown attractive results. This review considers the recent developments in the application of nanomaterials in sensing of LPS with emphasis given mainly to electrochemical and optical sensing.
Nanoporous gold (NPG) films have attracted increasing interest over the last ten years due to their unique properties of high surface area, high selectivity, and electrochemical activity along with enhanced electrical conductivity, and chemical stability. A variety of fabrication techniques to synthesize NPG thin films have been explored so far including dealloying, templating, sputtering, self-assembling, and electrodeposition. In this review, the progress in the synthetic techniques over the last ten years to prepare porous gold films has been discussed with emphasis given on the technique of electrodeposition. Such films have wide-ranging applications in the fields of drug delivery, energy storage, heterogeneous catalysis, and optical sensing.
Biomimetic membrane systems play a crucial role in the field of biosensor engineering. Over the years, significant progress has been achieved creating artificial membranes by various strategies from vesicle fusion to Langmuir transfer approaches to meet an ever-growing demand for supported lipid bilayers on various substrates such as glass, mica, gold, polymer cushions, and many more. This paper reviews the diversity seen in the preparation of biologically relevant model lipid membranes which includes monolayers and bilayers of phospholipid and other crucial components such as proteins, characterization techniques, changes in the physical properties of the membranes during molecular interactions and the dynamics of the lipid membrane with biologically active molecules with special emphasis on lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
The fundamental essence of material design towards creating functional materials lies in bringing together the competing aspects of a large specific surface area and rapid transport pathways. The generation of structural hierarchy on distinct and well-defined length scales has successfully solved many problems in porous materials. Important applications of these hierarchical materials in the fields of catalysis and electrochemistry are briefly discussed. This review summarizes the recent advances in the strategies to create a hierarchical bicontinuous morphology in porous metals, focusing mainly on the hierarchical architectures in nanoporous gold. Starting from the traditional dealloying method and subsequently moving to other non-traditional top-down and bottom-up manufacturing processes including templating, 3D printing, and electrodeposition, this review will thoroughly examine the chemistry of creating hierarchical nanoporous gold and other coinage metals. Finally, we conclude with a discussion about the future opportunities for the advancement in the methodologies to create bimodal structures with enhanced sensitivity.
Nanoporous gold (np-Au) has promising applications in therapeutic delivery. The promises arise from its high surface area-to-volume ratio, ease of tuning shape and size, ability to be modified by organic molecules including drugs, and biocompatibility. Furthermore, np-Au nanostructures can generate the photothermal effect. This effect can be used either for controlled release of drugs of therapeutic importance or for destroying cancer cells by heating locally. Despite the enormous potential, the research on the therapeutical use of the np-Au is still in its early stage. In this review, we discuss the current progress and future directions of np-Au for therapeutic applications.
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