Salt marsh ecosystems are maintained by the dominant macrophytes that regulate the elevation of their habitat within a narrow portion of the intertidal zone by accumulating organic matter and trapping inorganic sediment. The long‐term stability of these ecosystems is explained by interactions among sea level, land elevation, primary production, and sediment accretion that regulate the elevation of the sediment surface toward an equilibrium with mean sea level. We show here in a salt marsh that this equilibrium is adjusted upward by increased production of the salt marsh macrophyte Spartina alterniflora and downward by an increasing rate of relative sea‐level rise (RSLR). Adjustments in marsh surface elevation are slow in comparison to interannual anomalies and long‐period cycles of sea level, and this lag in sediment elevation results in significant variation in annual primary productivity. We describe a theoretical model that predicts that the system will be stable against changes in relative mean sea level when surface elevation is greater than what is optimal for primary production. When surface elevation is less than optimal, the system will be unstable. The model predicts that there is an optimal rate of RSLR at which the equilibrium elevation and depth of tidal flooding will be optimal for plant growth. However, the optimal rate of RSLR also represents an upper limit because at higher rates of RSLR the plant community cannot sustain an elevation that is within its range of tolerance. For estuaries with high sediment loading, such as those on the southeast coast of the United States, the limiting rate of RSLR was predicted to be at most 1.2 cm/yr, which is 3.5 times greater than the current, long‐term rate of RSLR.

Primary production in coastal wetlands is conventionally thought to be limited by nitrogen. Although the plant community in a pristine salt marsh was found to be limited primarily by nitrogen availability, the bacterial community in the soil was limited by phosphorus. Hence, in coastal wetlands, and possibly in many ecosystems, individual trophic groups may respond differently to nitrogen and phosphorus loading. Phosphorus limitation of the growth of nitrogen-transforming bacteria will affect carbon fixation, storage, and release mediated by plants, a result that has important implications for ecosystem management.

The phosphate sorption capacity of intertidal vegetated marsh sediments was measured along a salinity gradient in the Cooper River estuary, South Carolina. The phosphate sorption capacity of the surface sediments (0-10 cm) of a freshwater marsh was higher than the sorption capacity of sediments from brackish and saline marshes, and surface sediments had greater sorption capacity than subsurface (10-20 cm) sediments. These trends were opposite that of available phosphorus, which increased downstream and with depth. Freshwater marsh sediments trap phosphorus in a less-bioavailable form as evidenced by the low zero equilibrium phosphorus concentration (ZEPC) of the ambient sediment and low exchangeable phosphorus found there. Soil ZEPC values were similar to the in situ mean pore-water phosphate concentrations, which shows that sorption has a major effect on the spatial distribution of pore-water phosphorus along the estuarine salinity gradient. The magnitude of phosphorus sorption by the freshwater marsh sediments greatly reduced the pore-water phosphate concentration, while the phosphorus sorption properties of brackish and salt marsh sediments maintained in situ equilibrium pore-water phosphorus concentrations at surplus levels (with respect to its availability to plants). These differences in P sorption properties of the sediments can be explained on the basis of their physical and chemical characteristics. For instance, approaching the sea, the surface area of sediments declined, with freshwater marsh sediments (0-10 cm) supporting 8.5ϫ higher surface area than the salt marsh sediments. However, the sorption capacity of freshwater sediments was 33ϫ greater than that of salt marsh sediments, which indicates that other properties such as sediment mineral composition are important. The concentrations of important elements such as Al and Fe in sediments also declined downstream. The results suggest that the differences in phosphorus exchange properties among these marshes are a function of sediment type and sedimentary concentrations of Fe and Al. These in turn are related to the changes in ionic strength and associated parameters (e.g., pH) and physical sorting mechanisms.Phosphorus bioavailability (operationally defined here as the molybdate-reactive phosphorus) in wetlands is controlled by complex in situ biotic and abiotic processes. The latter include removal of dissolved phosphate from pore-water through sorption onto sediment particles and organic aggregates. Sorption-desorption processes within a sediment chemical environment are influenced by the mineral composition of the sediment. For example, P sorption is positively correlated with the amount of free iron oxide in acid sulfate soils (Jugsujinda et al. 1995). Furthermore, organic molecules can form complexes with metal ions such as iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al), which in turn can sorb phosphorus and reduce its bioavailability (Jones et al. 1993). This is consistent with the high phosphorus sorption capacity of mineral-rich, freshwater wetland sed...

Loading of bioavailable phosphorus, traditionally measured as soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), contributes to the eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. However, polyphosphates are also bioavailable but escape detection by the standard method used for measuring SRP. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometric analysis of sediment extracts and enzymatic assay of surface waters reveal heretofore unreported presence of pyrophosphate (Ppi) in coastal wetlands. We show that the accumulation of Ppi (the smallest chemical form of polyphosphate) in coastal wetlands is related to human impact and can occur in quantities that exceed that of SRP. We further demonstrate that Ppi is readily utilized by microbes in coastal wetland sediments in the presence of nitrogen and carbon and can serve as a reservoir of orthophosphate. Thus, Ppi accumulation in estuaries will subsidize the in situ biogeochemical phosphorus cycle. This has important ecological implications for trophic responses and estuarine productivity.

[1] In recent decades, the diatom Didymosphenia geminata has emerged as nuisance species in river systems around the world. This periphytic alga forms large "blooms" in temperate streams, presenting a counterintuitive result: the blooms occur primarily in oligotrophic streams and rivers, where phosphorus (P) availability typically limits primary production. The goal of this study is to examine how high algal biomass is formed under low P conditions. We reveal a biogeochemical process by which D. geminata mats concentrate P from flowing waters. First, the mucopolysaccaride stalks of D. geminata adsorb both iron (Fe) and P. Second, enzymatic and bacterial processes interact with Fe to increase the biological availability of P. We propose that a positive feedback between total stalk biomass and high growth rate is created, which results in abundant P for cell division. The affinity of stalks for Fe in association with ironphosphorus biogeochemistry suggest a resolution to the paradox of algal blooms in oliogotrophic streams and rivers.

Diatoms are considered unicellular eukaryotic organisms exclusively depositing biogenic silica. Heretofore there has been no report of calcifi cation by these algae. Here it is shown that calcium carbonate within the stalks of Didymosphenia geminata , a nuisance species that has prolifi cally colonized streams and rivers globally, is biogenic in origin and occurs as a network of calcite nanofi bers. The nanofi brous framework in the mineralized polysaccharide matrix imparts mechanical support to the stalks, providing stability in variable fl ow conditions. The results demonstrate that D. geminata possesses cellular and periplasmic carbonic-anhydrases that contribute to carbon fi xation and biomineralization, respectively. The activity of external carbonic-anhydrase was more than 50% of the total activity, which points to its role in anchoring this bioeroding diatom on hard surfaces. The fi rst evidence of multiphase biomineralization by diatoms that deposit both biogenic silica and crystalline biogenic calcite which are imparting distinct functional advantage to the organism is provided.

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Land‐use change has altered the ability of wetlands to provide vital services such as nutrient retention. While compensatory practices attempt to restore degraded wetlands and their functions, it is difficult to evaluate the recovery of soil biogeochemical functions that are critical for restoration of ecosystem services. Using solution 31P Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, we examined the chemical forms of phosphorus (P) in soils from wetlands located across a land‐use gradient. We report that soil P diversity, a functional attribute, was lowest in farmland, and greatest in native wetlands. Soil P diversity increased with age of restoration, indicating restoration of biogeochemical function. The trend in soil P diversity was similar to documented trends in soil bacterial taxonomic composition but opposite that of soil bacterial diversity at our study sites. These findings provide insights into links between ecosystem structure and function and provide a tool for evaluating the success of ecosystem restoration efforts.