Microsatellite DNA markers were applied for the first time in a population genetic study of a cephalopod and compared with previous estimates of genetic differentiation obtained using allozyme and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers. Levels of genetic variation detected with microsatellites were much higher than found with previous markers (mean number of alleles per locus=10.6, mean expected heterozygosity (HE)=0.79; allozyme HE=0.08; mtDNA restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) HE=0.16). In agreement with previous studies, microsatellites demonstrated genetic uniformity across the population occupying the European shelf seas of the North East Atlantic, and extreme genetic differentiation of the Azores population (RST/FST=0.252/0.245; allozyme FST=0.536; mtDNA FST=0.789). In contrast to other markers, microsatellites detected more subtle, and significant, levels of differentiation between the populations of the North East Atlantic offshore banks (Rockall and Faroes) and the shelf population (RST=0.048 and 0.057). Breakdown of extensive gene flow among these populations is indicated, with hydrographic (water depth) and hydrodynamic (isolating current regimes) factors suggested as possible barriers to migration. The demonstration of genetic subdivision in an abundant, highly mobile marine invertebrate has implications for the interpretation of dispersal and population dynamics, and consequent management, of such a commercially exploited species. Relative levels of differentiation indicated by the three different marker systems, and the use of measures of differentiation (assuming different mutation models), are discussed.

The study of cephalopod populations currently lacks the means to define populations adequately and to resolve basic systematic confusions. Quantitative data are usually only available from indirect sources such as commercial fisheries and from estimates of consumption by higher predators. Despite these methodological difficulties it is clear that cephalopods comprise a major component of biomass globally, throughout all fully marine habitats. Life-cycle characteristics common to the coleoids - early and/or semelparous breeding, rapid growth, short lifespan, little overlap of generations, vulnerability to predation and environmental variables - result in wide inter-annual fluctuations in abundance. Most of the pelagic forms also undertake large- or meso-scale migrations which, coupled to shifting patterns of oceanographic variables, contribute to the unpredictability of distribution and density associated with many cephalopod species. Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding, seasonality, growth, recruitment and mortality are clearly evident in most of the better-studied species. But exceptions to pattern (e.g. variable growth rates, extended breeding, complex recruitment) also seem to be important intrinsic characteristics. Levels of genetic variation in cephalopods are relatively low, and their population dynamics appear to be influenced principally by phenotypic plasticity in response to environmental variability. In such universally short-lived species the maintenance of this diversity balances the risks of mortality factors combining at any one time to cause periodic local extinction. The extent and scale of the interactions between cephalopod populations and other trophic levels suggests that major ecological perturbations such as environmental shifts, or imposed effects such as commercial fishing, whether directed at cephalopods or other species, are likely to have an impact on their populations. As short-lived species with high turnover of generations, plastic growth and reproductive characteristics, high mobility and catholic predatory habits, they are always poised to respond to changed balances in their environment. Studies on cephalopod populations have expanded considerably in numbers and scope in the last 25 years, driven by increased interest in and recognition of their roles in the marine ecology, as well as their increasing value as globally exploited resources. Despite these recent advances, the information and concepts arising from their study is only slowly entering mainstream biological thought and becoming accommodated in broad-scale models of the marine ecosystem.

With 6 plates and 1 figure in the text)The development of egg/follicular cell complexes is described in maturing females of the octopus EIedone cirrhosa. Follicle cells proliferate to enclose the oocyte in a single epithelial layer which becomes deeply infolded. Active cell division of the follicle cells and recruitment of cells from an outer (thecal) layer generate this expansion of follicle cell epithelium. The onset of the main phase of vitellogenesis, secretion of protein yolk, occurs when eggs reach about 2 mm in length and is marked by the columnar appearance of the follicle cells and an increased number of larger and more complex nuclei. A significant proportion of the egg population fails to develop beyond 2-3 mm in length and these eggs subsequently degenerate.

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