Conservation of the last remaining Ganges River dolphins Platanista gangetica gangetica in Nepal will require robust population estimates and better information on suitable habitat characteristics. To gain a better understanding of these parameters, we conducted boatbased surveys in the 3 major river systems (Karnali, Sapta Koshi, and Narayani) of Nepal. We recorded covariates at high spatial resolution and utilized these data to inform occurrence and abundance models. We allowed for detection bias by applying occupancy and N-mixture models that account for imperfect and heterogeneous detection. Occupancy results indicate that dolphin site use varies among the different river systems, across 2 seasons, and increases with river depth. River effects received nearly 100% of the model support and had the strongest influence on dolphin occurrence and abundance. The seasonal influence on dolphin occurrence in the systems (Σω i = 0.997) revealed that occupancy probabilities were heightened during the pre-monsoon season. Deep pool habitat was also identified as a predictor of dolphin habitat use, which accounted for 41.02% of all dolphin sightings occurring in this habitat. Although estimates vary depending on season, we estimate that there are between 37 and 42 (95% CI: 28 to 52) Ganges River dolphins distributed in the rivers of Nepal. Results suggest that seasonality and each specific river affect dolphins and their habitat in Nepal; we strongly recommend site and season-specific conservation actions. Further research on the integration of additional and alternative abundance techniques, behavioral studies, and pursuit of a conservation genetics approach are all important steps in the management of this endangered species.

The various dispersed organs belonging to the Pentoxylon plant viz. Pentoxylon (stem), Nipaniophyllum (leaf), Sahnia (male flower) and Carnoconites (female cone) have been studied in detail. Apart from the long shoots (type 1 shoots), the plant bore three different kinds of short shoots: the thick woody short shoots, each with a broadly conical head (type 2 shoots); the slender parenchymatous short shoots (type 3 shoots); and the slightly thicker parenchymatous short shoot (type 4 shoot) terminating in a Sahnia flower. In addition to the well known Nipaniophyllum raoi leaves a second species, N. hobsonii sp. nov., is recognized. In Sahnia the sporangiophores were borne on a collar-like structure formed by the raised margin of the receptacle. The broadly conical head of the thick woody short shoot (type 2 shoot) might be the basis of the cone-bearing branchlets of Carnoconites fruits. The seeds of Carnoconites are spirally arranged rather than being in longitudinal rows as previously suggested. Pentoxylon was probably a shrubby plant which grew beside water. It sent up erect branched leafy shoots which after a few seasons of growth flopped onto the ground or on other stems, making a thicket. Although the stem, Pentoxylon , resembles Medullosa and Rhexoxylon anatomically, the reproductive parts of the plant, Sahnia and Carnoconites , are unlike those of any group of gymnosperms. The Pentoxylon plant is accordingly regarded as an extinct gymnosperm of unknown affinity. Nipanioxylon guptai has previously been regarded as related to Pentoxylon , but its holotype is believed to be a conifer and has nothing to do with the Pentoxylon plant.

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The Ganges River dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica) (GRD) is classified as one of the most endangered of all cetaceans in the world and the second scarcest freshwater cetacean. The population is estimated to be less than 2,000 individuals. In Nepal’s Narayani, Sapta Koshi, and Karnali river systems, survival of GRD continues to be threatened by various anthropogenic activities, such as dam construction and interactions with artisanal fisheries. A basic description of the geographic scope, economics, and types of gear used in these fisheries would help managers understand the fishery-dolphin interaction conflict and assist with developing potential solutions. The main goal was to provide new information on the artisanal fishing communities in Nepal. The specific objectives were to identify, compile, and investigate the demographics, economics, fishing characteristics, and perception of fishermen about GRD conservation in the Narayani, Sapta Koshi, and Karnali rivers so conservation managers can develop and implement a potential solution to the GRD-fishery interaction problem in Nepal. Based on 169 interviews, 79% of Nepalese fishermen indicated fishing was their primary form of income. Fishermen reported fishing effort was greater in summer than winter; greatest in the afternoon (14:30 hrs ± 0:27) and during low water level conditions; and gear was set 4.8 ± 0.2 days/week. Fishermen reported using eight different types of monofilament nets (gillnets and cast nets). Sixty percent used gillnets less than 10 m long, and nearly 30% preferred gillnets between 10 and 100 m long; a few used gillnets longer than 100 m. Most fishermen reported they believed education, awareness, and changing occupations were important for GRD conservation, but they indicated that alternative occupational options were currently limited in Nepal. Nepalese fishermen acknowledged that fisheries posed a risk to GRD, but they believed water pollution, and dam/irrigation developments were the greatest threats.

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