In many organisms, body size is positively correlated with traits that are presumably related to fitness. If directional selection frequently favors larger offspring (the "bigger is better" hypothesis), the results of such selection should be detectable with field experiments. We tested the "bigger is better" hypothesis in hatchling snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) by conducting one long-term and three short-term experiments on the University of Michigan E.S. George Reserve in southeastern Michigan. In the fall of 1995 and 1996, we released hatchlings at artificial nests separated from the nearest wetland by fences. We recorded the proportion of hatchlings recaptured, the time it took hatchlings to move to fences from artificial nests 45, 55, and 80 m away, and dispersion along the fence. We determined whether the response variables and probability of recapture at fences were associated with hatchling body size. During 1995, average travel times of hatchlings from the experimental nests were not related to distance from the fence; however, time to recapture was positively correlated with dispersion from the zero point on the fence, and the maximum time to reach the fence was almost twice as long for hatchlings from the 80-m nest compared to those from the 45-m nest. Sixty-seven percent of the hatchlings reached the fence and the proportions doing so from each nest were not different. Body size was not significantly related to probability of recapture in either of the 1995 experiments. In 1996, 59% of released hatchlings were recaptured. Time to recapture was not related to dispersion from the zero point or to body size. Cubic spline analysis suggested stabilizing selection on body size. We also conducted a set of long-term hatchling release experiments between 1980-1993 to compare the survival of hatchlings released at nest sites to that of hatchlings released directly into marshes, and we looked for relationships between survivorship and hatchling body size. During 7 years in which more than 30 hatchlings were released, 413 hatchlings were released directly into the marsh and 262 were released at nests: their probability of survival did not differ. Over all years, for both release groups combined and for each group separately, survival was not related to body size. In 1983 alone, survival was also not related to body size for either group or for both groups combined. In our three short-term experiments and one long-term experiment, we found no evidence to support the "bigger is better" hypothesis. When selection on body size did occur, selection was stabilizing, not directional for larger size.
We investigated the relationship between maintenance costs (standard metabolic rates, measured as O2 consumption at rest) in tadpoles of the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, and exposure to contaminants in a coal ash-polluted habitat (characterized by a variety of trace elements). We compared metabolic rates of tadpoles collected from the polluted site with those from an unpolluted reference pond. Tadpoles collected in the polluted site had 40%-97% higher standard metabolic rates than those collected from the reference pond. We also reciprocally transplanted eggs of the bullfrog between the polluted site and another reference pond and compared standard metabolic rates of tadpoles at 25 and 80 d posthatching. Metabolic rates of tadpoles raised in the polluted site were from 39% to 175% higher than those raised in a reference pond, depending on tadpole age and temperature at which metabolic rates were measured. There were no effects of site of origin of the eggs (polluted or unpolluted) on metabolic rates. Survival to hatching did not differ between sites, although survival to the end of the experiment (80 d posthatching) was lower in the polluted area than in the reference site. Surviving tadpoles were larger in wet body mass in the polluted site than in the reference pond, possibly due to lower survival in the former, but there was no relationship between survival and metabolic rate. It is clear that some feature of the polluted habitat was responsible for causing substantial elevation of standard metabolic rates of tadpoles. We hypothesize that the mixture of trace elements present in sediment and water in the polluted site was responsible for the observed physiological differences.
Hatchling painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) often exhibit delayed emergence by remaining in shallow sub- terranean nest cavities throughout winter. As a result, those at northern latitudes are sometimes exposed to lethal subzero temperatures. Our field study compared survivorship of hatchling C. picta during a winter in which low subzero temperatures coincided with the absence of insulating snow cover (1995-1996) with survivorship during the following three winters (1996-1997, 1997-1998, and 1998-1999), which were characterized by more moderate conditions. Ambient-air and soil temperatures were monitored at a weather station located within ~1 km of all nests. During the first winter of our study (1995-1996), minimum ambient-air temperature reached -25.6°C on 2 February, concomitantly with the complete absence of snow cover, and soil temperatures fell to between -7 and -9°C. Resultant over-winter hatchling mortality was 45%. Because some hatchlings survived temperatures well below the lethal limits described for freeze tolerance (-1 to -4°C), it is likely that hatchlings in Michigan sometimes survive by supercooling. During the following three winters, soil temperatures remained above -2°C, except during brief periods when they fell to -4°C in the absence of snow cover. Over-winter hatchling mortality was <3% during each of these last 3 years. Our study highlights the importance of insulating snow cover to survival of hatchling C. picta. Air temperature and snowfall data from southeastern Michigan over the past 33 years indicate that conditions associated with substantial winter mortality occurred in 3 out of 33 years (9.1%). We demonstrate that the impact of substantial over-winter mortality on hatchling recruitment is dependent on nest survivorship during the preceding nesting season.
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