Mutations in Cx26 gene are found in most cases of human genetic deafness. Some mutations produce syndromic deafness associated with skin disorders, like Keratitis Ichthyosis Deafness syndrome (KID). Because in the human skin Cx26 is co-expressed with other connexins, like Cx43 and Cx30, and since KID syndrome is inherited as autosomal dominant condition, it is possible that KID mutations change the way Cx26 interacts with other co-expressed connexins. Indeed, some Cx26 syndromic mutations showed gap junction dominant negative effect when co-expressed with wild type connexins, including Cx26 and Cx43. The nature of these interactions and the consequences on hemichannels and gap junction channels functions remain unknown. In this study we demonstrate that syndromic mutations at the N-terminus segment of Cx26, change connexin oligomerization compatibility, allowing aberrant interactions with Cx43. Strikingly, heteromeric oligomer formed by Cx43/Cx26 (syndromic mutants) show exacerbated hemichannel activity, but nonfunctional gap junction channels; this also occurs for those Cx26 KID mutants that do not show functional homomeric hemichannels. Heterologous expression of these hyperactive heteromeric hemichannels increases cell membrane permeability, favoring ATP release and Ca2+ overload. The functional paradox produced by oligomerization of Cx43 and Cx26 KID mutants could underlie the severe syndromic phenotype in human skin.

This study identifies a motif within the first transmembrane domain of Cx26, from amino acids Val-37 through Ala-40, that is critical for oligomerization and function. The impacts of deafness-associated mutations within this motif upon gap junction channel and hemichannel functions correlate with the severity of disease that they cause.

The keratitis-ichthyosis-deafness (KID) syndrome is characterized by corneal, skin, and hearing abnormalities. KID has been linked to heterozygous dominant missense mutations in the GJB2 and GJB6 genes, encoding connexin26 and 30, respectively. In vitro evidence indicates that KID mutations lead to hyperactive (open) hemichannels, which in some cases is accompanied by abnormal function of gap junction channels. Transgenic mouse models expressing connexin26 KID mutations reproduce human phenotypes and present impaired epidermal calcium homeostasis and abnormal lipid composition of the stratum corneum affecting the water barrier. Here we have compiled relevant data regarding the KID syndrome and propose a mechanism for the epidermal aspects of the disease.

Mutations in human connexin (Cx) genes have been related to diseases, which we termed connexinopathies. Such hereditary disorders include nonsyndromic or syndromic deafness (Cx26, Cx30), Charcot Marie Tooth disease (Cx32), occulodentodigital dysplasia and cardiopathies (Cx43), and cataracts (Cx46, Cx50). Despite the clinical phenotypes of connexinopathies have been well documented, their pathogenic molecular determinants remain elusive. The purpose of this work is to identify common/uncommon patterns in channels function among Cx mutations linked to human diseases. To this end, we compiled and discussed the effect of mutations associated to Cx26, Cx32, Cx43, and Cx50 over gap junction channels and hemichannels, highlighting the function of the structural channel domains in which mutations are located and their possible role affecting oligomerization, gating and perm/ selectivity processes.

Purpose Mutations in connexin50 (Cx50) and connexin46 (Cx46) cause cataracts. Because the expression of Cx46fs380 leads to decreased gap junctional coupling and formation of calcium precipitates, we studied Cx50D47A lenses to test whether Cx50 mutants also cause cataracts due to calcium precipitation. Methods Connexin levels were determined by immunoblotting. Gap junctional coupling conductance was calculated from intracellular impedance studies of intact lenses. Intracellular hydrostatic pressure was measured using a microelectrode/manometer system. Intracellular free calcium ion concentrations ([Ca 2+ ] i ) were measured using Fura-2 and fluorescence imaging. Calcium precipitation was assessed by Alizarin red staining and compared to the distribution of opacities in darkfield images. Results In Cx50D47A lenses, Cx50 levels were 11% (heterozygotes) and 1.2% (homozygotes), and Cx46 levels were 52% (heterozygotes) and 30% (homozygotes) when compared to wild-type at 2.5 months. Gap junctional coupling in differentiating fibers of Cx50D47A lenses was 49% (heterozygotes) and 29% (homozygotes), and in mature fibers, it was 24% (heterozygotes) and 4% (homozygotes) compared to wild-type lenses. Hydrostatic pressure was significantly increased in Cx50D47A lenses. [Ca 2+ ] i was significantly increased in Cx50D47A lenses. Alizarin red-stained calcium precipitates were present in homozygous Cx50D47A lenses with a similar distribution to the cataracts. Conclusions Cx50D47A expression altered the lens internal circulation by decreasing connexin levels and gap junctional coupling. Reduced water and ion outflow through gap junctions increased the gradients of intracellular hydrostatic pressure and concentrations of free calcium ions. In these lenses, calcium ions accumulated, precipitated, and formed cataracts. These results suggest that mutant lens fiber connexins lead to calcium precipitates, which may cause cataracts.

Connexin hemichannel (Cx HC) opening is involved in physiological and pathological processes, allowing the cellular release of autocrine/paracrine signaling molecules. Linoleic acid (LA) is known to modulate the functional state of connexin46 (Cx46) HCs. However, the molecular mechanism involved in this effect, or whether LA affects HCs constituted of other connexins, remains unknown. Here, we report the effects of LA on HCs in HeLa cells that express Cx26, one of the main Cxs in the cochlear sensory epithelium. Cx26 HC activity (dye uptake) was increased in a concentration-dependent manner by bath application of LA and inhibited by HC blockers. Moreover, intracellular BAPTA, a Ca(2+) chelator, and PI3K/AKT inhibitors were found to reduce the LA-induced Cx26 HC opening, suggesting that the LA effect is mediated by an increase of free intracellular Ca(2+) concentration and activation of the PI3K/Akt-dependent pathway. The LA-induced increase in free intracellular Ca(2+) concentration was mainly due to Ca(2+) influx through Cx26 HCs. In addition, the involvement of SH groups was ruled out, because dithiothreitol (DTT) did not block the LA-induced dye uptake. LA also increased the membrane current mediated by Cx26 HCs expressed in Xenopus oocytes and the dye uptake in HeLa cells expressing Cxs 32, 43 or 45. Since LA is an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, its effect on HCs might be relevant to cell growth as well as to cellular functions of differentiated cells such as audition.

Gap junction-mediated intercellular communication facilitates the circulation of ions, small molecules, and metabolites in the avascular eye lens. Mutants of the lens fiber cell gap junction proteins, connexin46 (Cx46) and connexin50 (Cx50), cause cataracts in people and in mice. Studies in mouse models have begun to elucidate the mechanisms by which these mutants lead to cataracts. The expression of the dominant mutants causes severe decreases in connexin levels, reducing the gap junctional communication between lens fiber cells and compromising the lens circulation. The impairment of the lens circulation results in several changes, including the accumulation of Ca2+ in central lens regions, leading to the formation of precipitates that stain with Alizarin red. The cataract morphology and the distribution of Alizarin red-stained material are similar, suggesting that the cataracts result from biomineralization within the organ. In this review, we suggest that this may be a general process for the formation of cataracts of different etiologies.

Gap junction channels (GJCs) and hemichannels (HCs) are composed of protein subunits termed connexins (Cxs) and are permeable to ions and small molecules. In most organs, GJCs communicate the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, while HCs communicate the intra and extracellular compartments. In this way, both channel types coordinate physiological responses of cell communities. Cx mutations explain several genetic diseases, including about 50% of autosomal recessive non-syndromic hearing loss. However, the possible involvement of Cxs in the etiology of acquired hearing loss remains virtually unknown. Factors that induce post-lingual hearing loss are diverse, exposure to gentamicin an aminoglycoside antibiotic, being the most common. Gentamicin has been proposed to block GJCs, but its effect on HCs remains unknown. In this work, the effect of gentamicin on the functional state of HCs was studied and its effect on GJCs was reevaluated in HeLa cells stably transfected with Cxs. We focused on Cx26 because it is the main Cx expressed in the cochlea of mammals where it participates in purinergic signaling pathways. We found that gentamicin applied extracellularly reduces the activity of HCs, while dye transfer across GJCs was not affected. HCs were also blocked by streptomycin, another aminoglycoside antibiotic. Gentamicin also reduced the adenosine triphosphate release and the HC-dependent oscillations of cytosolic free-Ca2+ signal. Moreover, gentamicin drastically reduced the Cx26 HC-mediated membrane currents in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Therefore, the extracellular gentamicin-induced inhibition of Cx HCs may adversely affect autocrine and paracrine signaling, including the purinergic one, which might partially explain its ototoxic effects.