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The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) constitutes the most significant global public health challenge in a century. It has reignited research interest in coronavirus. While little information is available, research is currently in progress to comprehensively understand the general biology and immune response mechanism against SARS-CoV-2. The spike proteins (S protein) of SARS-CoV-2 perform a crucial function in viral infection establishment. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 play a pivotal role in viral entry. Upon viral entry, the released pro-inflammatory proteins (cytokines and chemokines) cause the migration of the T cells, monocytes, and macrophages to the infection site. IFNϒ released by T cells initiates a loop of pro-inflammatory feedback. The inflammatory state may further enhance with an increase in immune dysfunction responsible for the infection’s progression. A treatment approach that prevents ACE2-mediated viral entry and reduces inflammatory response is a crucial therapeutic intervention strategy, and nanomaterials and their conjugates are promising candidates. Nanoparticles can inhibit viral entry and replication. Nanomaterials have also found application in targeted drug delivery and also in developing a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2. Here, we briefly summarize the origin, transmission, and clinical features of SARS-CoV-2. We then discussed the immune response mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. Finally, we further discussed nanotechnology’s potentials as an intervention strategy against SARS-CoV-2 infection. All these understandings will be crucial in developing therapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2.

The advent and use of antimicrobials have played a key role in treating potentially life-threatening infectious diseases, improving health, and saving the lives of millions of people worldwide. However, the emergence of multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens has been a significant health challenge that has compromised the ability to prevent and treat a wide range of infectious diseases that were once treatable. Vaccines offer potential as a promising alternative to fight against antimicrobial resistance (AMR) infectious diseases. Vaccine technologies include reverse vaccinology, structural biology methods, nucleic acid (DNA and mRNA) vaccines, generalised modules for membrane antigens, bioconjugates/glycoconjugates, nanomaterials and several other emerging technological advances that are offering a potential breakthrough in the development of efficient vaccines against pathogens. This review covers the opportunities and advancements in vaccine discovery and development targeting bacterial pathogens. We reflect on the impact of the already-developed vaccines targeting bacterial pathogens and the potential of those currently under different stages of preclinical and clinical trials. More importantly, we critically and comprehensively analyse the challenges while highlighting the key indices for future vaccine prospects. Finally, the issues and concerns of AMR for low-income countries (sub-Saharan Africa) and the challenges with vaccine integration, discovery and development in this region are critically evaluated. K E Y W O R D Santimicrobial resistant bacteria, bacterial vaccines, emerging vaccine technologies, infectious diseases, lowand middle-income countries, vaccines

Resistance to antibiotics persists as a critical challenge in public health. Currently, the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria is a primary concern globally, resulting in a dramatic increase in epidemiological relevance and importance of nosocomial and chronic infections. Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacteriaceae has recently been classified as critical in the World Health Organization (WHO) priority pathogens. Among these bacterial pathogens, resistance seems to be a natural trait. The acquisition and development of resistance by bacteria is through several mechanisms. The genetic background and intrinsic resistance mechanisms largely contribute to competitive advantage and resistance in a highly resistant pool. The acquisition of resistance genes driven by mobile genetic elements (MGE) and several biochemical mechanisms also plays a central role in resistance development among pathogenic bacteria. This review discussed the recent underlying multiple resistance mechanisms among the priority pathogens. This review also provides an up-to-date regional epidemiological data and implications of antimicrobial resistance. Given the severity of infections caused by these bacteria, their less susceptibility to the available antimicrobials, and the limited antimicrobial arsenal to treat these pathogens, current insight on resistance mechanisms becomes timely and highly relevant. This information will help develop better therapeutic strategies against resistance microbes, especially those of urgent priority.

Cancer affects millions of people worldwide and contributes to the highest percentage of global deaths compared to other ailments. Most cancer sites are vulnerable to infection by a vast number of opportunistic pathogens. Data from several surveillance reports have revealed several opportunistic pathogens responsible for infections in cancer patients. The present study investigated the spectrum of bacteria isolated from acute cancer patients. Samples were recovered from urine, vaginal swab, and breast swab. Identification and characterization of the isolates were performed using standard microbiological methods. A total of 130 bacteria comprising 78(60%) gram-positive and 52(40%) gram-negative were recovered. A statistically significant difference (P<0.05) was observed between the two groups. The most prevalent organism was Staphylococcus spp. (42.3%) followed by Escherichia coli (36.2%), Lactobacillus spp. (8.5%), Micrococcus spp. (6.2%), Streptococcus spp. (3.1%), Klebsiella spp. (1.5%), Proteus spp. (1.5%) and Pseudomonas spp. (0.8%). Our findings showed the predominance of gram-positive bacteria in infections among cancer patients. However, Enterobacteriaceae (E. coli) was the most frequently isolated among the gram-negative. This study indicates that cancer patients may be infected by several opportunistic pathogens, highlighting an ongoing trend toward gram-positive organisms causing infection in cancer patients. Therefore, it underscores the importance of constant monitoring at regional levels as surveillance efforts are important to provide the clinicians with the appropriate information in choosing treatment regimens and implement a proper policy for infection control guidelines.