Industrial globalization and urbanization has placed man on a path for the quest of energy. Conspicuously there are various types and forms of energy with established technologies on harnessing and utilization wherein fossil fuel still remains the cheapest with straightforward application. Although, conventional fossil fuel resources are depleting because of population growth, unconventional reservoirs are exploited daily with limited production due to inadequate and expensive technology making them stand at approximately 9.1 trillion barrels poised to quell the world's energy insecurity for the next 100 years. The underlying basis for the high-cost of unconventional reservoirs upgrading is the hydrogen required to seal the alkyl chain after cracking to form low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Therefore, in this chapter we aim to provide a comprehensive review of in-situ generation of hydrogen from syngas via water gas shift reaction for the catalytic upgrading of heavy crude oil and bitumen by analyzing the gas chromatography results of gaseous effluents for the presence of syngas in the various works cited. Although, heavy crude oil and bitumen are non-renewable the upgrading method selected is tenable, appropriately the overall technology is partially sustainable.
Photovoltaic technology is the most sustainable source of renewable energy because sunlight radiation is free and readily available. Therefore, the materials required accessing this energy source, cost and the efficiency of conversion from solar to electricity is the topic of interest in continued research. Graphene as a sp2-hybridized 2-dimensional carbon with unique crystal and electronic properties comprising high charge carrier mobility, optical transparency, inexpensive, excellent mechanical strength and flexibility with chemical stability and inertness among others is a suitable material for application in various units of the different architectures in third generation solar cells. It can be applied as a semiconductor layer, electrolyte and counter-electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells; electrode, perovskite, electron and hole transporting layers in perovskite solar cells; and electrode, hole transporting layer and electron acceptor and donor in organic solar cells; in addition to graphene/silicon Schottky junction. Following the application of graphene in various units of the third generation architecture, the power conversion efficiency has increased from 1.9% to over 22%, with ongoing research expected to develop a more stable design with longevity comparable to commercially available silicon-based p-n junction.
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