Gabapentin and ketamine are similar in improving early pain control and in decreasing opioid consumption; however, gabapentin also prevented chronic pain in the first 6 postoperative months.

These findings suggest that the descending serotonergic pathways and spinal 5-HT7 receptors play a crucial role in the antinociceptive and antihyperalgesic effects of tramadol and M1.

No abstract

NTRODUCTION Several natural products have been reported to have beneficial effects on ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, particularly from a preventative perspective. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the efficiency of proanthocyanidin (PA), a natural product derived from grape seed, on renal dysfunction and injury induced by I/R of rat kidney. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty‐four male Sprague‐Dawley rats were divided into three groups: sham‐operated, I/R, I/R+PA. Rats were given PA (100 mg/kg/day peroral) 7 days prior to I/R. All rats except sham‐operated underwent 60 min of bilateral renal ischemia followed by 6 h of reperfusion. After reperfusion, kidneys and blood were obtained for evaluation. Superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl content, and nitrite/nitrate level (NO(x)) were determined in the renal tissue. Serum creatinine (S(Cr)), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were determined in the blood. Additionally, renal sections were used for histological grade of renal injury. RESULTS PA significantly reduced the I/R‐induced increases in S(Cr), BUN, and AST. In addition, PA markedly reduced elevated oxidative stress product, restored decreased antioxidant enzymes, and attenuated histological alterations. Moreover, PA attenuated the tissue NO(x), levels indicating reduced NO production. CONCLUSIONS The pretreatment of rats with PA reduced the renal dysfunction and morphological changes, ameliorated cellular injury, and restored renal antioxidant enzymes caused by renal I/R.

This study demonstrates that PA has a significant effect in the protection of the intestine and the remote organs against mesenteric IR injury.