Crop coefficients (k c ) were calculated for three different species of common green roof 5 succulents from March to November in 2011, to parameterize the FAO Penman-Monteith 6 equation for use in a mechanistic green roof water-balance model. Seasonally averaged k c values 7 for each species were then used to predict plant evapotranspiration (E T ) in 2012. The adjusted 8 FAO Penman-Monteith equation predicted total annual E T within 3-13 mm, a substantial 9 improvement over model predictions with k c set to1, which over-predicted E T by 100mm or 10 more, depending on species. The adjusted equation was inserted in water balance models which 11 predicted runoff within 2-13% of measured totals for 2012. This discrepancy may be explained 12 by variability in maximum water holding capacity which is difficult for two dimensional models 13 to predict. Nevertheless, these results provide increased confidence in the use of models to 14 predict stormwater runoff from green roofs and evaluate performance. Monitoring multiple green 15 roof installations with cost-effective sensor networks will increase our ability to identify the key 16 components to enhance green roof function, reduce stormwater runoff, and inform future design. 17
Many invertebrates react to the actual presence and/or to chemical cues from predators. However, there is lack of information on the interrelationship of different cues triggering the antipredator response. In a series of aquarium experiments we investigated to which extent the antipredator response of a freshwater amphipod (Gummarus roeseli), i.e. seeking refuge in coarse substrate, is influenced by the actual presence of a natural fish predator (the ruffe, Gymnocephalus cernuus) including mechanical and visual cues, purely chemical cues, as well as the thickness of the sediment layer. Presence of Gummarus roeseli on the substrate surface and activity was videotaped under different conditions and evaluated according to a standard protocol. Even without fish present and without fish chemicals Gammurus roeseli moved into the substrate because of thigmotactic behavior. The presence of ruffe accelerated this phenomenon and fish odor elicited weaker responses. Gammurus roeseli was able to recognize the approach of fish predators both visually and/or mechanically.
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