Intergroup contact is one of the most promising and effective strategies for reducing prejudice. Importantly, intergroup contact not only improves attitudes towards an encountered outgroup member but also to the outgroup as a whole (i.e., primary transfer effects), to other outgroups (i.e., secondary transfer effects), and even enhances cognitive functioning beyond intergroup relations (i.e., tertiary transfer effect). In this article, we first review the recent developments on primary, secondary, and tertiary contact generalization. We then summarize mechanisms that underlie and condition each of these generalizations. Third, we highlight key critiques against the contact literature identifying avenues for future research on generalization processes. Lastly, we underline the policy value of research on generalization effects.

Dual identity (e.g., strong ethnic and national identity) is a psychological resource for minority groups, but how it develops during adolescence is less clear. In this 3-wave longitudinal study, a person-oriented approach was used to examine dual identity development in a sample of 2145 Muslim adolescents (MT1 = 15 years, 51% female) in four Western European countries. The results of a growth-mixture model pointed toward four distinct developmental Classes: (1) “Dual identity”, (2) “Separation to dual identity”, (3) “Assimilation to dual identity”, and (4) “Separation”. Multiple group comparisons further showed that adolescents in Class 1 were well adjusted, but well-being (e.g., internalizing problems, life satisfaction) and health were even higher among adolescents in Class 2. Adolescents in Class 3 had consistently lower levels of well-being, and adolescents in Class 4 had lower levels of socio-cultural adjustment (e.g., problem behaviour at school, delinquent behaviour, and lack of intergroup contact). The findings underscore that most Muslim minority adolescents in Western Europe develop a dual identity, and that the developmental process, not simply the outcome, matters for adjustment.

We examined developmental trajectories of ethnic and national identity during early adolescence and linked subgroups of identity change to ethnic minority children's school adjustment. Our longitudinal data on Turkish immigrant-origin children in Germany (n = 146; MT1 = 10.42 years, 46.6% male) covered three waves of annual measurement. A personoriented approach using growth mixture modelling revealed two different classes (subgroups) of identity change: Class 1 comprised children with a high and stable Turkish identity, and Class 2 comprised children with a medium and increasing Turkish identity. German identity was medium and stable in both classes. Results further showed generally high levels of school adjustment in both classes but lower levels of school motivation and teacher support among children in Class 2. Our findings point toward heterogeneity in ethnic minority children's identity development during early adolescence and support the 'ethnic identity as a resource' hypothesis.

Research on acculturation gaps has traditionally focused on parent–child dyads and the negative implications for youths’ psycho-social adaptation. The current study explored the impact of acculturation gaps in Turkish immigrant couples (N = 121) on each spouse’s acculturation stress. Wives and husbands reported their acculturation across two domains (language and identity) and dimensions (German and Turkish), and two facets of stress (homesickness and upholding traditions). Actor–partner interdependence models were used to estimate effects (Cook & Kenny, 2005). While homesickness was a burden for both partners, upholding traditions was not an immense stressor but was higher among husbands. Host culture adaptation was associated with lower levels of homesickness among wives and higher levels of stress with traditions among husbands. Heritage culture maintenance was associated with lower levels of stress with traditions among husbands. Overall, there were very few partner effects although better Turkish language abilities of wives were related to less homesickness among husbands. Acculturation gaps were either unrelated to spouses’ acculturation stress or associated with lower levels of stress. Results are discussed with respect to an interpersonal perspective on immigrants’ acculturation strategies. We promote the idea that biculturalism can be achieved within the couple.

Abstract. Immigrant parents face a double challenge in rearing their children in a foreign country. In addition to the tasks that all parents face, they must also try to find a balance between the norms and expectations of their heritage culture and those of the culture they live in. How do immigrant parents support their children and contribute to their positive adaptation? The goal of this review is to highlight selected aspects of parenting and family relationships that are strongly linked to children’s development and resilience. With regards to family processes, we underscore the contribution of fathers, the role of a potential acculturation gap between parents, and the benefit of speaking the heritage language in the family. For the connection to the world outside of the family, we highlight the advantage of having proficiency in the majority language and of parental involvement in schools. Finally, we outline the specific challenges and stressors as well as the importance of family relationships for families with refugee status. We conclude by making the case that immigrant parents should be encouraged and supported in rearing their children in a way that fosters family cohesion and reflects their heritage culture as well as the culture of the host country. This requires support and intervention programs that are not only culturally sensitive but are also two-generational and focus on mothers, fathers, and children.

The development of negative cognitive biases, together with symptoms of anxiety and depression, has yet to be investigated longitudinally. Using a three-wave design, the present study examined developmental trajectories of anxiety and depressive symptoms and the co-occurrence of cognitive biases, in a large normative sample of adolescents (N = 504). Data was drawn from the CogBIAS Longitudinal Study (CogBIAS-L-S), which assessed a wide range of psychological variables, including cognitive biases and self-reported anxiety and depressive symptoms, when adolescents were approximately 13, 14.5, and 16 years of age. The results showed that overall levels of anxiety were low and stable, while levels of depression were low but increased slightly at each wave. Growth mixture modeling identified four distinct developmental classes with regard to anxiety and depressive symptoms. Multiple group analysis further showed that class membership was related to the development of cognitive biases. The majority of the sample (75%) was characterised by ‘Low symptoms’ of anxiety and depression and showed low interpretation and memory biases for negative stimuli at each wave. A second class (11%) displayed ‘Decreasing anxiety symptoms’ and showed decreasing interpretation bias, but increasing memory bias. A third class (8%) displayed ‘Comorbid increasing symptoms’ and showed increasing interpretation and memory biases. While the fourth class (6%) displayed ‘Comorbid decreasing symptoms’ and showed decreasing interpretation and memory biases. This longitudinal study sheds light on healthy and psychopathological emotional development in adolescence and highlights cognitive mechanisms that may be useful targets for prevention and early interventions.

The acculturation complexity model suggests that immersion into dissonant cultures promotes cognitive skills in biculturals (Tadmor and Tetlock, 2006). In the present study, we examined links between identity acculturation and executive functioning (EF). Turkish-German immigrant origin children (N = 225; M = 11 years, SD = 1.6 years, 99 males) were given questions about their identification with Turks and Germans to capture bicultural involvement and a Dot Task (using Hearts and Flowers) to measure EF. Results showed that Turkish-German bicultural children who endorse both cultures with equal strength did not have a cognitive advantage in working memory and inhibition compared to their peers who more clearly preferred one culture over the other. However, bicultural children who endorse both cultures with equal strength performed significantly better on a switching task that required cognitive flexibility. The study highlights the potential cognitive benefits associated with biculturalism.

This study addresses the question of whether and when religious parenting is a bridge or a barrier to Muslim immigrant children's integration. Integration was defined as children's identification with the heritage culture and the host culture. Participants included 210 selfidentified Turkish-Muslim mothers, children (ages 9-14) and 115 fathers in Germany. All family members filled in questionnaires on identification with Turks and identification with Germans; in addition both parents reported on religious parenting and children on religiosity. Results of multivariate regression analyses revealed that religious parenting was negatively related to children's identification with Germans but positively related to children's identification with Turks through increased child religiosity. However, additional multiplegroup analyses revealed that only the religious parenting of lower educated parents and first generation mothers reduced the likelihood of children's identification with Germans. The religious parenting of higher educated parents and second generation mothers did not affect children's identification with Germans but promoted children's identification with Turks. Taken together, the findings highlight the diverse roles of religious parenting for cultural socialization processes in Muslim immigrant families.