The present study examined the role of voluntary motor commands in the subjective temporal attraction between an action and its sensory consequence termed as intentional binding. Participants either pressed a key voluntarily or involuntarily while seeing a rotating clock hand. The key press was followed by a short beep tone in some blocks of trials. Then, the position of the clock hand at action or tone occurrence was judged. Trials in which key presses and tones occurred separately provided baseline measures. A direct comparison of baseline uncorrected estimates between both action conditions indicated less binding for involuntary than for voluntary movements as reported by previous studies. However, this effect disappeared after a baseline correction and when we controlled for the temporal predictability of critical events. These results cast substantial doubts on a close link between action intention and intentional binding, but instead highlight the role of causal inference and multisensory integration processes. Public Significance StatementIn contrast to previous research, this study suggests that the subjective temporal attraction between an action and its sensory effect previously termed as intentional binding is not related to the intentionality of the actor.
Context. Of the presently known ≈ 3900 exoplanets, sparse spectral observations are available for ≈ 100. Ultra-hot Jupiters have recently attracted interest from observers and theoreticians alike, as they provide observationally accessible test cases. Aims. We aim to study cloud formation on the ultra-hot Jupiter HAT-P-7b, the resulting composition of the local gas phase, and how their global changes affect wavelength-dependent observations utilised to derive fundamental properties of the planet. Methods. We apply a hierarchical modelling approach as a virtual laboratory to study cloud formation and gas-phase chemistry. We utilise 97 vertical 1D profiles of a 3D GCM for HAT-P-7b to evaluate our kinetic cloud formation model consistently with the local equilibrium gas-phase composition. We use maps and slice views to provide a global understanding of the cloud and gas chemistry. Results. The day/night temperature difference on HAT-P-7b (∆T ≈ 2500 K) causes clouds to form on the nightside (dominated by H 2 /He) while the dayside (dominated by H/He) retains cloud-free equatorial regions. The cloud particles vary in composition and size throughout the vertical extension of the cloud, but also globally. TiO 2 [s]/Al 2 O 3 [s]/CaTiO 3 [s]-particles of cm-sized radii occur in the higher dayside-latitudes, resulting in a dayside dominated by gas-phase opacity. The opacity on the nightside, however, is dominated by 0.01 . . . 0.1 µm particles made of a material mix dominated by silicates. The gas pressure at which the atmosphere becomes optically thick is ∼ 10 −4 bar in cloudy regions, and ∼ 0.1 bar in cloud-free regions. Conclusions. HAT-P-7b features strong morning/evening terminator asymmetries, providing an example of patchy clouds and azimuthally-inhomogeneous chemistry. Variable terminator properties may be accessible by ingress/egress transmission photometry (e.g., CHEOPS and PLATO) or spectroscopy. The large temperature differences of ≈2500 K result in an increasing geometrical extension from the night-to the dayside. The chemcial equilibrium H 2 O abundance at the terminator changes by < 1 dex with altitude and 0.3 dex (a factor of 2) across the terminator for a given pressure, indicating that H 2 O abundances derived from transmission spectra can be representative of the well-mixed metallicity at P 10 bar. We suggest the atmospheric C/O as an important tool to trace the presence and location of clouds in exoplanet atmospheres. The atmospheric C/O can be sub-and supersolar due to cloud formation. Phase curve variability of HAT-P-7b is unlikely to be caused by dayside clouds.
A habitual and a goal-directed system contribute to action selection in the human CNS. We examined to which extent both systems interact when selecting grasps for handling everyday objects. In Experiment 1, an upright or inverted cup had to be rotated or moved. To-be-rotated upright cups were more frequently grasped with a thumb-up grasp, which is habitually used to hold an upright cup, than inverted cups, which are not associated with a specific grasp. Additionally, grasp selection depended on the overarching goal of the movement sequence (rotation vs. transport) according to the end-state comfort principle. This shows that the habitual system and the goal-directed system both contribute to grasp selection. Experiment 2 revealed that this object-orientation-dependent grasp selection was present for movements of the dominant- and non-dominant hand. In Experiment 3, different everyday objects had to be moved or rotated. Only if different orientations of an object were associated with different habitual grasps, the grasp selection depended on the object orientation. Additionally, grasp selection was affected by the horizontal direction of the forthcoming movement. In sum, the experiments provide evidence that the interaction between the habitual and the goal-directed system determines grasp selection for the interaction with every-day objects.
Choosing among different options typically entails weighing their anticipated costs and benefits. Previous research has predominantly focused on situations, where the costs and benefits of choices are known before an action is effectuated. Yet many decisions in daily life are made on the fly, for instance, making a snack choice while walking through the grocery store. Notably, the costs of actions change dynamically while moving. Therefore, in this study we examined whether the concurrent action dynamics of gait form part of and affect value-based decisions. In three experiments, participants had to decide which lateral (left vs. right) target (associated with different rewards) they would go to, while they were already walking. Results showed that the target choice was biased by the alternating stepping behavior, even at the expense of receiving less reward. These findings provide evidence that whole-body action dynamics affect value-based decisions.
We propose a classification of exoplanet atmospheres based on their H, C, O, N element abundances below about 600 K. Chemical equilibrium models were run for all combinations of H, C, N, O abundances, and three types of solutions were found, which are robust against variations of temperature, pressure and nitrogen abundance. Type A atmospheres contain H 2 O, CH 4 , NH 3 and either H 2 or N 2 , but only traces of CO 2 and O 2. Type B atmospheres contain O 2 , H 2 O, CO 2 and N 2 , but only traces of CH 4 , NH 3 and H 2. Type C atmospheres contain H 2 O, CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 , but only traces of NH 3 , H 2 and O 2. Other molecules are only present in ppb or ppm concentrations in chemical equilibrium, depending on temperature. Type C atmospheres are not found in the solar system, where atmospheres are generally cold enough for water to condense, but exoplanets may well host such atmospheres. Our models show that graphite (soot) clouds can occur in type C atmospheres in addition to water clouds, which can occur in all types of atmospheres. Full equilibrium condensation models show that the outgassing from warm rock can naturally provide type C atmospheres. We conclude that type C atmospheres, if they exist, would lead to false positive detections of biosignatures in exoplanets when considering the coexistence of CH 4 and CO 2 , and suggest other, more robust non-equilibrium markers.
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