Universal dependencies (UD) is a framework for morphosyntactic annotation of human language, which to date has been used to create treebanks for more than 100 languages. In this article, we outline the linguistic theory of the UD framework, which draws on a long tradition of typologically oriented grammatical theories. Grammatical relations between words are centrally used to explain how predicate–argument structures are encoded morphosyntactically in different languages while morphological features and part-of-speech classes give the properties of words. We argue that this theory is a good basis for cross-linguistically consistent annotation of typologically diverse languages in a way that supports computational natural language understanding as well as broader linguistic studies.
The experience of examining small culverts of artificial structures, carried out by a number of specialized organizations, shows that on some highways of the country up to 80% of pipes have some degree of damage. This article provides data from field surveys of pipes located on the main highways of Tatarstan. Survey data is needed to identify common problems at concrete culverts in Tatarstan. Field data were also analyzed using statistical software to identify factors contributing to the degradation of concrete culverts. The article presents a method for assessing the risk of developing negative phenomena when maintaining concrete pipes. The proposed risk assessment method allows predicting and preventing the occurrence of such phenomena.
Modern road network should provide conditions for safe and comfortable movement, both for drivers and for pedestrians. Transport industry development specialists face such transport problem as the low capacity of the road network. Low capacity causes congestion in the road network, disruptions in the organization of normal traffic flow, traffic jams, an increase in the number of traffic accidents. One way to solve this transportation problem is to use alternative solutions when designing. These solutions include constructing the intersections at different levels. The aim of the study is to compile data on alternative diamond-shaped intersections at different levels with a change in the side of movement. The main results of the study are that at the moment there are three schemes of a diamond-shaped intersection with a change in the side of the movement. These types of intersections have a smaller number of conflict points, compared with the intersection of the diamond type. The experience in the operation of road sections with diamond intersections showed a decrease in accident rates. Cyclists and pedestrians can use the junctions as well. The results of the study give an idea of the level of design of alternative types of intersections abroad. Considered interchanges can be used not only when at crossings of high-category roads, but also in cities, in the conditions of the existing development.
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