The hypothalamic suprachiasmatic (SCN) clock contains several neurochemically defined cell groups that contribute to the genesis of circadian rhythms. Using cell-specific and genetically targeted approaches we have confirmed an indispensable role for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing SCN (SCN VIP) neurons, including their molecular clock, in generating the mammalian locomotor activity (LMA) circadian rhythm. Optogenetic-assisted circuit mapping revealed functional, di-synaptic connectivity between SCN VIP neurons and dorsomedial hypothalamic neurons, providing a circuit substrate by which SCN VIP neurons may regulate LMA rhythms. In vivo photometry revealed that while SCN VIP neurons are acutely responsive to light, their activity is otherwise behavioral state invariant. Single-nuclei RNAsequencing revealed that SCN VIP neurons comprise two transcriptionally distinct subtypes, including putative pacemaker and non-pacemaker populations. Altogether, our work establishes necessity of SCN VIP neurons for the LMA circadian rhythm, elucidates organization of circadian outflow from and modulatory input to SCN VIP cells, and demonstrates a subpopulation-level molecular heterogeneity that suggests distinct functions for specific SCN VIP subtypes.
GABA is a principal neurotransmitter in the suprachiasmatic hypothalamic nucleus (SCN), the master circadian clock. Despite the importance of GABA and GABA uptake for functioning of the circadian pacemaker, the localization and expression of GABA transporters (GATs) in the SCN has not been investigated. The present studies used Western blot analysis, immunohistochemistry, and electron microscopy to demonstrate the presence of GABA transporter 1 (GAT1) and GABA transporter 3 (GAT3) in the SCN. By light microscopy, GAT1 and GAT3 were co-localized throughout the SCN, but were not expressed in the perikarya of arginine vasopressin- or vasoactive intestinal peptide-immunoreactive (−ir) neurons of adult rats, nor in the neuronal processes labeled with the Neurofilament Heavy Chain. By electron microscopy, GAT1- and GAT3-ir was found in glial processes surrounding unlabeled neuronal perikarya, axons, dendrites, and enveloped symmetric and asymmetric axo-dendritic synapses. Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein-ir astrocytes grown in cell culture were immunopositive for GAT1 and GAT3 – and both GATs could be observed in the same glial cell. These data demonstrate that synapses in the SCN function as “tripartite” synapses consisting of presynaptic axon terminals, postsynaptic membranes, and astrocytes that contain GABA transporters. This model suggests that astrocytes expressing both GATs may regulate the extracellular GABA, and thereby modulate the activity of neuronal networks in the SCN.
Significance Statement Astrocytes are a critical component of the neural network in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) required for the generation of precise circadian rhythms. We hypothesized that postsynaptic SCN neurons recruit astrocytes via endocannabinoid signaling to modulate presynaptic GABA release. We demonstrate, using a combination of approaches including whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology, GCaMP6 calcium imaging in astrocytes, pharmacology, and manipulation of intracellular signaling cascades using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drug (DREADD) technology, that SCN neurons release cannabinoids that activate astrocyte intracellular Ca 2ϩ signaling pathways to modulate GABA neurotransmission via adenosine. In addition to unraveling this novel signaling cascade in the SCN, we demonstrate that both CB1 receptor activation and adenosine phase advance the molecular circadian clock, suggesting an important role for astrocytes in modulating clock timing.
GABA is a principal neurotransmitter in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) that contributes to intercellular communication between individual circadian oscillators within the SCN network and the stability and precision of the circadian rhythms. GABA transporters (GAT) regulate the extracellular GABA concentration and modulate GABA receptor (GABAR)-mediated currents. GABA transport inhibitors were applied to study how GABAR-mediated currents depend on the expression and function of GAT. Nipecotic acid inhibits GABA transport and induced an inward tonic current in concentration-dependent manner during whole cell patch-clamp recordings from SCN neurons. Application of either the selective GABA transporter 1 (GAT1) inhibitors NNC-711 or SKF-89976A, or the GABA transporter 3 (GAT3) inhibitor SNAP-5114, produced only small changes of the baseline current. Coapplication of GAT1 and GAT3 inhibitors induced a significant GABAR-mediated tonic current that was blocked by gabazine. GAT inhibitors decreased the amplitude and decay time constant and increased the rise time of spontaneous GABAR-mediated postsynaptic currents. However, inhibition of GAT did not alter the expression of either GAT1 or GAT3 in the hypothalamus. Thus GAT1 and GAT3 functionally complement each other to regulate the extracellular GABA concentration and GABAR-mediated synaptic and tonic currents in the SCN. Coapplication of SKF-89976A and SNAP-5114 (50 µM each) significantly reduced the circadian period of expression in the SCN by 1.4 h. Our studies demonstrate that GAT are important regulators of GABAR-mediated currents and the circadian clock in the SCN. In the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the GABA transporters GAT1 and GAT3 are expressed in astrocytes. Inhibition of these GABA transporters increased a tonic GABA current and reduced the circadian period of expression in SCN neurons. GAT1 and GAT3 showed functional cooperativity: inhibition of one GAT increased the activity but not the expression of the other. Our data demonstrate that GABA transporters are important regulators of GABA receptor-mediated currents and the circadian clock.
Synaptic and extrasynaptic GABAA receptor (GABAAR)-mediated neurotransmission is a critical component of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) neuronal network. However, the properties of the GABAA tonic current (Itonic) and its origin remain unexplored. Spontaneous GABAA postsynaptic currents (sGPSC) and Itonic were recorded from SCN neurons using the whole-cell voltage-clamp technique at different times of the day. GABAAR antagonists (bicuculline, gabazine, and picrotoxin) inhibited sGPSC and induced an outward shift of the holding current, which defined the Itonic amplitude. The sGPSC frequency, synaptic charge transfer, and the Itonic amplitude all demonstrated significant diurnal rhythms with peaks in the middle of the day (Zeitgeber Time, ZT8) and nadirs at night (ZT19). The Itonic amplitude increased proportionally with the sGPSC frequency and synaptic charge transfer during the day and required action potential-mediated GABA release, which was confirmed by TTX application. The activation of presynaptic GABAB receptors by baclofen did not significantly alter the Itonic of neurons with low-frequency sGPSC. The equilibrium potential (Eq) for Itonic was similar to the Eq for chloride and GABAA receptor-activated currents. Itonic showed outward rectification at membrane potentials over the range of -70 mV to -10 mV, then was linear at voltages greater than -10 mV. GABAAR containing α4-, α5- and δ- subunits were expressed in SCN, and their contribution to Itonic was confirmed by application of the GABAAR agonist THIP and the GABAAR inverse agonist L655,708. Thus, the Itonic was mediated by extrasynaptic GABAARs activated predominantly by GABA diffusing out of GABAergic synapses.
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