Membrane water transport is critically involved in brain volume homeostasis and in the pathogenesis of brain edema. The cDNA encoding aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel protein was recently isolated from rat brain. We used immunocytochemistry and high-resolution immunogold electron microscopy to identify the cells and membrane domains that mediate water flux through AQP4. The AQP4 protein is abundant in glial cells bordering the subarachnoidal space, ventricles, and blood vessels. AQP4 is also abundant in osmosensory areas, including the supraoptic nucleus and subfornical organ. Immunogold analysis demonstrated that AQP4 is restricted to glial membranes and to subpopulations of ependymal cells. AQP4 is particularly strongly expressed in glial membranes that are in direct contact with capillaries and pia. The highly polarized AQP4 expression indicates that these cells are equipped with specific membrane domains that are specialized for water transport, thereby mediating the flow of water between glial cells and the cavities filled with CSF and the intravascular space. Key words: aquaporin-4 water channel; brain water permeability; glial cells; ependymal cells; immunogold electron microscopy; CSFWater metabolism is of major importance in a number of physiological processes in the CNS including CSF production and absorption, fluid transport across neuropil and vascular endothelium, and cell volume regulation (Fitzsimons, 1992;Robertson, 1992). In addition, water transport may serve to compensate for local changes in osmolality associated with potassium siphoning, which is essential for synaptic transmission. Alterations in water distribution in brain and CSF compartments is a common occurence in multiple neuropathological conditions including brain edema, brain tumors, stroke, hyponatremia, head injuries, and hydrocephalus. Despite its importance, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in transmembrane water movements in brain.Discovery of aquaporin-1 (Preston et al., 1992) answered the long-standing biophysical question of how water crosses plasma membranes (for review, see Agre et al., 1993;Knepper, 1994). Characterization of aquaporins provided molecular insight into fundamental processes of normal water balance and disorders of water balance outside brain (for review, see Nielsen et al., 1996). A cDNA for aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel protein was isolated recently from rat brain (Hasegawa et al., 1994;Jung et al., 1994), and abundant AQP4 was noted in brain including in cerebellum, hypothalamus, spinal cord, and ependymal cells lining the ventricles (Jung et al., 1994;Frigeri et al., 1995). Nevertheless, the cellular and subcellular distributions of AQP4 in brain remain unknown, and definition of the sites of AQP4 expression will be essential for understanding its physiological and pathophysiological roles.Immunocytochemistry and high-resolution immunogold electron microscopy were used to define the sites of AQP4 in brain. AQP4 expression is restricted to ependymal cell lining of ...

The glutamate transporters GLT-1 and GLAST were studied by immunogold labeling on ultrathin sections of rat brain tissue embedded in acrylic resins at low temperature after freeze substitution. Both proteins were selective markers of astrocytic plasma membranes. GLT-1 was much higher in hippocampal astrocytes than in cerebellar astrocytes. Astroglial membrane GLAST densities ranked as follows: Bergmann > cerebellar granular layer approximately hippocampus > cerebellar white matter. No astrocyte appeared unlabeled. Astrocytic membranes facing capillaries, pia, or stem dendrites were lower in glutamate transporters than those facing nerve terminals, axons, and spines. Parallel fiber boutons (glutamatergic) synapsin on interneuron dendritic shafts were surrounded by lower transporter densities than those synapsing on Purkinje cell spines. Our findings suggest the localizations of glutamate transporters are carefully regulated.

The unravelling of the polarized distribution of AQP4 in perivascular astrocytic endfeet has revitalized the interest in the role of astrocytes in controlling water and ion exchange at the brain-blood interface. The importance of the endfeet is based on the premise that they constitute a complete coverage of the vessel wall. Despite a number of studies based on different microscopic techniques this question has yet to be resolved. We have made an electron microscopic 3D reconstruction of perivascular endfeet in CA1 (stratum moleculare) of rat hippocampus. The endfeet interdigitate and overlap, leaving no slits between them. Only in a few sites do processes--tentatively classified as processes of microglia--extend through the perivascular glial sheath to establish direct contact with the endothelial basal lamina. In contrast to the endfoot covering of the endothelial tube, the endfoot covering of the pericyte is incomplete, allowing neuropil elements to touch the basal lamina that enwraps this type of cell. The 3D reconstruction also revealed large bundles of mitochondria in the endfoot processes that came in close apposition to the perivascular endfoot membrane. Our data support the idea that in pathophysiological conditions, the perivascular astrocytic covering may control the exchange of water and solutes between blood and brain and that free diffusion is limited to narrow clefts between overlapping endfeet.

The water permeability of biological membranes has been a longstanding problem in physiology, but the proteins responsible for this remained unknown until discovery of the aquaporin 1 (AQP1) water channel protein. AQP1 is selectively permeated by water driven by osmotic gradients. The atomic structure of human AQP1 has recently been defined. Each subunit of the tetramer contains an individual aqueous pore that permits single-file passage of water molecules but interrupts the hydrogen bonding needed for passage of protons. At least 10 mammalian aquaporins have been identified, and these are selectively permeated by water (aquaporins) or water plus glycerol (aquaglyceroporins). The sites of expression coincide closely with the clinical phenotypes -ranging from congenital cataracts to nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. More than 200 members of the aquaporin family have been found in plants, microbials, invertebrates and vertebrates, and their importance to the physiology of these organisms is being uncovered.

Two vesicular glutamate transporters, VGLUT1 and VGLUT2, have recently been identified, and it has been reported that they are expressed by largely nonoverlapping populations of glutamatergic neurons in the brain. We have used immunocytochemistry with antibodies against both transporters, together with markers for various populations of spinal neurons, in an attempt to identify glutamatergic interneurons in the dorsal horn of the mid-lumbar spinal cord of the rat. The great majority (94-100%) of nonprimary axonal boutons that contained somatostatin, substance P or neurotensin, as well as 85% of those that contained enkephalin, were VGLUT2-immunoreactive, which suggests that most dorsal horn neurons that synthesize these peptides are glutamatergic. In support of this, we found that most somatostatin- and enkephalin-containing boutons (including somatostatin-immunoreactive boutons that lacked calcitonin gene-related peptide and were therefore probably derived from local interneurons) formed synapses at which AMPA receptors were present. We also investigated VGLUT expression in central terminals of primary afferents. Myelinated afferents were identified with cholera toxin B subunit; most of those in lamina I were VGLUT2-immunoreactive, whereas all those in deeper laminae were VGLUT1-immunoreactive, and some (in laminae III-VI) appeared to contain both transporters. However, peptidergic primary afferents that contained substance P or somatostatin (most of which are unmyelinated), as well as nonpeptidergic C fibres (identified with Bandeiraea simplicifolia isolectin B4) showed low levels of VGLUT2-immunoreactivity, or were not immunoreactive with either VGLUT antibody. As all primary afferents are thought to be glutamatergic, this raises the possibility that unmyelinated afferents, most of which are nociceptors, express a different vesicular glutamate transporter.

Postembedding immunogold labeling was used to determine the relationship between AMPA and NMDA receptor density and size of Schaffer collateral-commissural (SCC) synapses of the adult rat. All SCC synapses expressed NMDA receptors. AMPA and NMDA receptors were colocalized in at least 75% of SCC synapses; the ratio of AMPA to NMDA receptors was a linear function of postsynaptic density (PSD) diameter, with AMPA receptor number dropping to zero at a PSD diameter of approximately 180 nm. These findings indicate that 'silent' SCC synapses are smaller than the majority of SCC synapses at which AMPA and NMDA receptors are colocalized. Thus synapse size may determine important properties of SCC synapses.

The association of LRRK2 with a variety of membrane and vesicular structures, membrane-bound organelles, and microtubules suggests an affinity of LRRK2 for lipids or lipid-associated proteins and may suggest a potential role in the biogenesis and/or regulation of vesicular and membranous intracellular structures within the mammalian brain.

(AQP4) is one of the most abundant molecules in the brain and is particularly prevalent in astrocytic membranes at the blood-brain and brain-liquor interfaces. While AQP4 has been implicated in a number of pathophysiological processes, its role in brain physiology has remained elusive. Only recently has evidence accumulated to suggest that AQP4 is involved in such diverse functions as regulation of extracellular space volume, potassium buffering, cerebrospinal fluid circulation, interstitial fluid resorption, waste clearance, neuroinflammation, osmosensation, cell migration, and Ca 2ϩ signaling. AQP4 is also required for normal function of the retina, inner ear, and olfactory system. A review will be provided of the physiological roles of AQP4 in brain and of the growing list of data that emphasize the polarized nature of astrocytes.