Environmental challenges are integrated in the inmunoneuroendocrine interplay, impacting the immune system of the challenged individuals, and potentially implying transgenerational effects on their offspring. This study addressed whether dietary supplementation with thymol can modulate the immune response of adult Japanese quail when simultaneously exposed to an inoculum of inactivated Salmonella Enteritidis and a chronic heat stress (CHS). We also evaluated whether the experienced situations by adults can affect the immune response of their undisturbed offspring. In the parental generation, supplemented quail exposed to CHS had a higher inflammatory response and similar values of the heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio than those that were not supplemented. In their offspring, those chicks whose parents were exposed to CHS showed higher inflammatory response and lower antibody production. Regarding the H/L ratio, chicks whose parents were supplemented showed lower H/L ratio values. Dietary supplementation with thymol partially and positively modulated the inflammatory response and avoided H/L ratio alteration in the parental generation exposed to high environmental temperatures, suggesting these adults were better at dealing with the challenge. The lower H/L ratio values in the offspring suggests that chicks are more capable to deal with potential stressful situations associated with conventional breeding conditions.
The perception, processing and response to environmental challenges involves the activation of the immuno-neuroendocrine (INE) interplay. Concerted environmental challenges might induce trade-off when resource allocation to one trait occurs at the expense of another, also producing potential transgenerational effects in the offspring. We evaluated whether concerted challenges, in the form of an immune inoculum against inactivated Salmonella enteritidis (immune challenge, ICH) and a chronic heat stress (CHS) exposure on adult Japanese quail, modulate the INE responses of the parental generation and their offspring. Adults were inoculated and later exposed to a CHS along nine consecutive days. For the last 5 days of the CHS, eggs were collected for incubation. Chicks were identified according to their parental treatments and remained undisturbed. Induced inflammatory response, heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio and specific humoral response against sheep red blood cells (SRBC) were evaluated in both generations. Regardless of the ICH, stressed adults showed a reduced inflammatory response and an elevated H/L ratio compared with controls. In offspring, the inflammatory response was elevated and the specific SRBC antibody titres were diminished in those chicks prenatally exposed to CHS, regardless of the ICH. No differences were found in the H/L ratio of the offspring. Together, our results suggest that CHS exposure influences the INE interplay of adult quail, establishing trade-offs within their immune system. Moreover, CHS not only affected parental INE responses but also modulated their offspring INE responses, probably affecting their potential to respond to future challenges. The adaptability of the developmental programming of offspring would depend on the environment encountered.
Background West Nile virus (WNV) activity has been documented in the central region of Argentina since 2005, but its maintenance network has not been elucidated yet. Methods We evaluated the susceptibility to WNV oral infection and transmission in a Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus mosquito population by means of a dose-dependent vector competence assay. Mosquitoes were orally infected with five different viral loads and evaluated for viral infection, dissemination and transmission. Results The evaluated population was susceptible to WNV oral infection. Disseminated infections were detected in all the viral doses but transmission was only detected in the higher doses (6 and 7 log10 plaque-forming units/ml). A linear relationship between doses and transmission rates could be established. Conclusions A minimum transmission threshold suggests that the Cu. p. quinquefasciatus from Argentina could acquire WNV infection from local urban birds and transmit the virus.
Host life-history traits can influence host-vector encounter rates, and so differentially determine the exposure risk of bird species. This modulation of host-virus encounters dynamics is especially important when facing generalist arboviruses like West Nile virus (WNV) and Saint Louis Encephalitis virus (SLEV). Using prevalence data collected by our laboratory since 2004, we tested several hypothesis that included birds ecological and life-history traits to determine which traits were better predictors of birds exposure risk to these arboviruses. By means of information-theoretic procedures and generalized mixed linear models, we observed that body mass was an important trait when predicting birds exposure risk to WNV and SLEV and migratory status significantly influenced birds exposure risk only to WNV. Our study highlights important traits to consider when studying the transmission system of these arboviruses, being useful to focus resources when characterizing viral transmission networks and discuss the repercussions of these traits over birds immune function throughout the pace of life syndrome and trade-offs theory.
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