International audienceCare provided by females of many mammal species varies naturally between individuals; these differences in turn influence the phenotypic development of their offspring. When individual maternal behavioural traits are consistent over a number of breeding periods, maternal styles can be defined. These styles have been studied in a large range of mammalian species. Nevertheless, mammals rarely offer the possibility to dissociate mothers' behavioural influence from their genetic influence or their physiological influence via lactation. Here, we provide, for the first time, evidence of the existence of a precocial bird species' maternal styles. By using an adoption procedure we evaluated how maternal style affected the behaviour of Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica, chicks, via exclusively nongenomic mechanisms. As well as evidence for the existence of maternal styles in this species, we also found correlations between females' temperaments, maternal styles and their fostered chicks' development. Our findings indicate that maternal styles are key features that help understand nongenomic transmission of behavioural characteristics whose vectors have remained poorly understood. (C) 2013 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Early maternal deprivation impairs the behavioral development of young individuals. Recently, strong differences between mothered and maternally deprived chicks have been reported concerning their emotionality, sociality, and spatial skills. Here we investigated long-term and cross-generational impacts of maternal deprivation by comparing the characteristics of the non-reproductive and the maternal behavior of 22 mothered and 22 non-mothered adult female Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica) and by comparing the behavior of their respective fostered chicks. We reveal that non-brooded mothers were more fearful and less competent in spatial tasks and expressed impaired maternal care, characterized by more aggression towards chicks, higher activity rates, and more abnormal pacing during the first days of the care period. Chicks' behavior was clearly affected by maternal care inducing strong differences in their fearfulness and social motivation. Our results show both long-term and cross-generational impacts of early maternal deprivation in precocial birds.

Our study investigated relationships between a precocial bird’s fearfulness and maternal care, and the implication of maternal care as a vector for non-genomic transmission of fearfulness to chicks. We compared care given to chicks between two sets of female Japanese quail selected to present either high (LTI) or low fearfulness (STI). Chicks, from a broiler line, were adopted by these females following a sensitization procedure. Chicks’ fearfulness after separation from their mother was assessed by well-established procedures. LTIs took longer to present maternal responses, pecked chicks more during the first days post-hatch, presented impaired maternal vocal behaviour and were globally less active than STI females. Chicks mothered by LTIs presented more fearful reactions than did chicks mothered by STIs, supporting the hypothesis of a non-genetic maternal transmission of fearfulness. We suggest that the longer latencies required by LTIs to become maternal are a consequence of their greater fear of chicks, and that their lower general and vocal activity could be components of a heightened antipredatory strategy. We discuss the transmission of maternal fearfulness to fostered chicks, taking into account the possible implication of several well-known mechanisms underlying maternal effects.

Previous investigations reported that some traits of parental relationships, including pair-bond duration or mate behavioural compatibility, influence subsequent offspring fitness by acting on their behaviour and growth and thus their early survival. We hypothesized that the development of a pair bond between sexual partners would have a prenatal influence. This study investigated the impact of two pairing managements on the egg characteristics and development of offspring of Japanese quail (Coturnix c. japonica). Thirty males and 30 females were paired either continuously (C; mates together all the time) or non-continuously (NC; pairs met only three times a week for 5 min). Separation-reunion tests evaluated parental pair bond. Egg yolk testosterone and androstenedione levels were evaluated, and the somatic and behavioural development of C and NC chicks was assessed. Our results revealed that members of C pairs were attached to their mates and, although no significant differences in androgen levels could be evidenced between egg sets, a higher proportion of C pairs' eggs were fertilized and their chicks appeared less emotive and more social. Our results revealed that the parental relationship can modulate the behavioural development of their offspring, probably via non-genetic effects, and this could play a major role in the emergence of inter-individual variability.

Beyond the genetic links between mother and young, prenatal effects experienced by offspring can modulate their mother's behaviour and stress. Here we investigated the consequences of stress-induced prenatal maternal effects on quail chicks' behaviour and maternal behaviour. We evaluated how adoptive quail mothers (unstressed) raised chicks of females that had either been stressed (PS) or were non-stressed (NPS) during laying. We demonstrated previously that our social stress procedure during laying increases levels of egg yolk steroid and chicks' emotional reactivity during the postnatal period. We found that, compared to NPS mothers, PS mothers remained closer to their chicks, were aggressed and neglected them less, emitted more maternal vocalisations and called their chicks more when they were separated. Moreover, PS chicks made more requests on their mother. Our results show that mothers responded to chicks' behavioural changes caused by prenatal stress by adapting their maternal behaviour. As exemplified here, for the first time in birds, prenatal environment can affect postnatal maternal behaviour by changing their offspring's behaviour.

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