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A chemical compound, whether of natural or of synthetic origin, brings about a toxicological effect when its dose is high enough or the duration of exposure is sufficient to cause an alteration in the normal homeostasis of body fluids and tissues. Therefore, the right dose differentiates a toxicant from a remedy. The body detoxifies drugs and other chemical compounds through key organs such as the liver. The liver plays a central role in the metabolism and excretion of xenobiotics which makes it highly susceptible to their adverse and toxic effects. These effects can be manifested in the form of hepatic injuries, which take many forms from cellular degeneration and necrosis to cirrhosis or cholestasis to vascular injury. Exposure to hepatotoxicants alters the homeostatic balance of various biological markers that provides a powerful and dynamic approach to understanding the spectrum of liver diseases. These markers offer a means for homogeneous classification of a disease and risk factor, and they can extend one's basic information about the underlying pathogenesis of disease and in drug design.

Diarrhea is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among children under the age of five years in the developing world. Opportunistic bacteria have been identified as the major cause of diarrhea in HIV infected patients. Treatment of these emerging and re-emerging strains of diarrhea causing bacteria has become difficult due to their increased tolerant to the present available antibiotics. There is need to identify and develop alternative drugs, which are effective, affordable and easily accessible to diarrhea patients. However, there is no record in the literature of the antibacterial activity of these plants. The objective of this study was to enhance understanding of the efficacy of ethno-medical materials in the management of diarrhea. Antibacterial activity was evaluated by determination of Minimum Inhibition Concentration and the Minimum Bactericidal Concentration of the plant extracts against the diarrhea causing bacterial. Phytochemical screening for bioactive compounds was undertaken using standard qualitative methods. Maytenus putterlickoides (roots) and Senna spectabilis (leaves) were active against Salmonela typhi, Shigella flexineriae and Shigella Dysenteriae with zone of inhibition ranging 9.2-15.8 mm. Olinia usambarensis (leaves) had antimicrobial activity against several bacterial isolates with zone of inhibition ranging 9-15 mm. Alkaloids, tannins, anthrocyanins, triterpenes and steroids, saponins, flavanoids, coumarins and reducing sugars were present in the three plant extracts. These phytochemicals account for the antibacterial activity of the extracts against the bacterial strains.

Mworia et al., Med Aromat Plants 2015, S1 http://dx

Prosopis juliflora (Mathenge) is an exotic, evergreen leguminous plant found in the dry Coastal, Rift Valley and Northern parts of Kenya. It is tolerant to extreme environmental conditions, rated among top 100 most invasive species worldwide. The species leaf extracts is used in folk cure to various ailments and have promising pharmacological properties however; information on their toxicity in animals and human is insufficient. The study assessed phytochemical composition of P. juliflora leaf extracts, effects on body weights, organ weights, hematological parameters, liver function markers and histopathology in major organs of Wistar albino rats. Acute toxicity test was carried out at 2000 mg/kg body weight followed by a 28 days sub chronic toxicity study at 100, 350 and 1000 mg/kg body weight extracts dosages. The control animals were administered with normal saline. Animals were monitored for physical and behavioral changes including death. They were fasted overnight on 28th day and sacrificed on anesthesia on 29th day. Blood was collected by cardiac puncture. Hematological and liver functions tests were done. Tissue sample of selected organs were processed for histopathology. Data from control and treated animals groups were analyzed by ANOVA and Dunnett's test. Phytochemicals confirmed included alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, terpenoids and saponnins but no cardiac glycosides. Median lethal dose was estimated at above 2000 mg/kg body weight. Dose related transient toxicity symptoms included wheezing, decreased activity, and pilo erection. No significant toxicity effects on hematological parameters were noticed except in mean platelets volume. Similarly, no significant adverse effects occurred in liver function tests except at 1000 mg/kg body weight dosage. No significant adverse changes in plasma proteins, body weights and absolute organ weights were observed except in kidneys and spleen. Histological examination of sample tissues showed mild effects in spleen and kidneys but no adverse pathology in other organ tissues.

Although diabetes is sometimes considered a condition of developed nations, the loss of life from premature death among persons with diabetes is greatest in developing countries. In developing countries it is people in the middle, productive years of their lives that are particularly affected by diabetes. In these countries three-quarters of all people with diabetes are under 65 years old and 25% of all adults with diabetes are younger than 44 years. In developed countries, more than half of all people with diabetes are older than 65 years, and only 8% of adults with diabetes are younger than 44 years [5].

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C virus (HCV) are blood borne viruses that can cause chronic liver disease leading to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). More than 2 billion people have been infected with HBV with over 350 million being chronic carriers. About 3% of the world's population is infected with HCV with about 170 million being chronic carriers. Co-infections of both HBV and HCV with HIV occur regularly due to shared transmission routes. Co-infections with HIV impact on the natural history, progression and diagnosis of hepatitis as well as morbidity and mortality of those infected. Distribution patterns continue to vary across different geographic regionsThe objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of HIV, HBV and HCV co-infections among HIV patients attending The Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare (AMPATH), Eldoret, Kenya.Ethical approval was obtained from the Moi Teaching and Referral hospital Ethical committee. 5ml of blood was obtained by venipuncture from consenting volunteers and screened with the ELISA tests for detecting HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) and anti-HCV antibodies. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 20.0.From a total of 124 subjects, fifty three (42.28%) were male and 71 (57.72%) were female. Seven (5.7%) had HIV/HBV co-infections while two (1.6%) had HIV/HCV co-infections. Five (7.0%) females and two (3.8%) males had HIV/HBV co infections. One male (1.9%) and one female (1.4%) had HIV/HCV co infections. There were no triple viral co-infections.Although the HBV and HCV co-infections with HIV were reported to be low among the baseline population, the prevalence rates may be higher among the patients who have been infected with HIV.