The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) has been an important tool in researching masculinity. With the original measure at 94 items (Mahalik et al., 2003), there have been several abbreviated forms developed from 11 to 55 items. However, in confirmatory factor analyses (CFA's) testing 13 common factors, bifactor, hierarchical, and unidimensional models, only 4 models demonstrated adequate fit to the data, and most of these were for the still quite long 46-item version. As a result, there was no psychometrically strong truly short form of the CMNI. In the present study, data from 1561 community and university men were used to develop a short form. First an exploratory factor analysis using a portion of the data was conducted, which resulted in a 10-subscale dimensionality, followed by CFA estimating a common factors model. The results of the CFA were used to create two candidate models for a 30-item short form of the CMNI, based on Classical test theory (CTT) and optimized CTT. The best-fitting candidate model for the CMNI-30 was CTT. Next, the fit of the 29, 46, and 94 item models were compared to the 30-item version, which had the superior fit. Then, measurement invariance between White men and men of color was assessed, choosing this comparison because hegemonic masculinity is theorized to marginalize men of color. Evidence was found for full configural and metric, and partial scalar and residuals invariance. Finally, significant relationships between CMNI-30 scores and indicators of depression and anxiety provides preliminary concurrent evidence for its validity.

This study uniquely examines the relationship between specific forms of discrimination and how Muslim young adults in the United States choose to identify. A survey was distributed to Muslim young adults in Genesee County, Michigan, where 2.6% of the population is Muslim. Some experiences of discrimination were significantly related to identifying as a Muslim and not also as an American. In particular, experiences of being accused or suspected of doing something wrong because of one's identity significantly predicted responses on the identity variable above and beyond other experiences of discrimination. The probability of a Muslim young adult identifying only as a Muslim when sometimes experiencing being accused of something wrong is 43.1%. This probability drops to 32.8% for those never experiencing this form of discrimination. The article discusses the implications of increasing discrimination on future generations of Muslims and their identity development.

Popular measures of masculinity and femininity ideologies have been validated primarily with cisgender (cis) samples. The present study assessed the measurement equivalence/invariance (ME/I) of two versions of the Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI; Short and Very Brief Forms), and the Femininity Ideology Scale-Short Form, across gender broadly conceived to include cis, transgender (trans), and nonbinary gender identities. Participants (N = 1233, 34.3 % trans) were recruited from community and college samples in the United States. Correlated factors models of the MRNI-SF and FIS-SF evidenced the best fit to data in the total sample. The MRNI-SF only provided a good fit for cis individuals, and some items from the MRNI-VB and the FIS-SF were significant sources of local misfit among trans and non-binary participants. After removing these items, however, acceptable fit was achieved for each gender group. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses (CFA's) revealed (a) broad support for configural invariance for the MRNI-VB (9/9 gender comparisons) and the FIS-SF (8/9), as well as general support for metric invariance for the MRNI-VB (7/9) and the FIS-SF (7/9). More advanced levels of invariance (scalar and residuals) were generally not supported for the MRNI-VB but were supported for the FIS-SF. The effect size of measurement non-invariance among all possible gender comparisons was generally small, with a few exceptions. Finally, analysis of variance (ANOVAS) revealed that cis men endorsed traditional gender ideologies to the greatest extent, followed by cis women, followed by trans participants. The results are discussed in relationship to prior literature, future research directions, applications to practice, and limitations.

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The authors critically examine the development of career counseling for women during the early 20th century. The development of career counseling for women lagged behind career counseling for men. Challenges, such as feminization of occupations, restricted occupational opportunities, and societal norms, stunted the development of career counseling for women. Furthermore, career counseling for women varied based on racial groups. Early writings discussed opportunities specifically geared toward White, college‐educated, nonimmigrant women. Although these beginning opportunities provided formal guidance to White women, many other women were excluded from formal career counseling and are not represented in these writings. Implications include training practitioners to recognize their own biases when working with women, how gender bias influences career counseling inventories and career theories, and how counselors can challenge these biases and stereotypes to provide the full range of career opportunities to women. Future research should address the impact of career counseling on women of color.