The role of Type I interferon (IFN) during pathogenic HIV and SIV infections remains unclear, with conflicting observations suggesting protective versus immunopathological effects. We therefore examined the effect of IFNα/β on T cell death and viremia in HIV infection. Ex vivo analysis of eight pro- and anti-apoptotic molecules in chronic HIV-1 infection revealed that pro-apoptotic Bak was increased in CD4+ T cells and correlated directly with sensitivity to CD95/Fas-mediated apoptosis and inversely with CD4+ T cell counts. Apoptosis sensitivity and Bak expression were primarily increased in effector memory T cells. Knockdown of Bak by RNA interference inhibited CD95/Fas-induced death of T cells from HIV-1-infected individuals. In HIV-1-infected patients, IFNα-stimulated gene expression correlated positively with ex vivo T cell Bak levels, CD95/Fas-mediated apoptosis and viremia and negatively with CD4+ T cell counts. In vitro IFNα/β stimulation enhanced Bak expression, CD95/Fas expression and CD95/Fas-mediated apoptosis in healthy donor T cells and induced death of HIV-specific CD8+ T cells from HIV-1-infected patients. HIV-1 in vitro sensitized T cells to CD95/Fas-induced apoptosis and this was Toll-like receptor (TLR)7/9- and Type I IFN-dependent. This sensitization by HIV-1 was due to an indirect effect on T cells, as it occurred in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures but not purified CD4+ T cells. Finally, peak IFNα levels and viral loads correlated negatively during acute SIV infection suggesting a potential antiviral effect, but positively during chronic SIV infection indicating that either the virus drives IFNα production or IFNα may facilitate loss of viral control. The above findings indicate stage-specific opposing effects of Type I IFNs during HIV-1 infection and suggest a novel mechanism by which these cytokines contribute to T cell depletion, dysregulation of cellular immunity and disease progression.
A significant hurdle in vaccine development for many infectious pathogens is the ability to generate appropriate immune responses at the portal of entry, namely mucosal sites. The development of vaccine approaches resulting in secretory IgA and mucosal cellular immune responses against target pathogens is of great interest and in general, requires live viral infection at mucosal sites. Using HIV-1 and influenza A antigens as models, we report here that a novel systemically administered DNA vaccination strategy utilizing co-delivery of the specific chemokine molecular adjuvant CCL25 (TECK) can produce antigen-specific immune responses at distal sites including the lung and mesenteric lymph nodes in mice. The targeted vaccines induced infiltration of cognate chemokine receptor, CCR9+/CD11c+ immune cells to the site of immunization. Furthermore, data shows enhanced IFN-λ secretion by antigen-specific CD3+/CD8+ and CD3+/CD4+ T cells, as well as elevated HIV-1-specific IgG and IgA responses in secondary lymphoid organs, peripheral blood, and importantly, at mucosal sites. These studies have significance for the development of vaccines and therapeutic strategies requiring mucosal immune responses and represent the first report of the use of plasmid co-delivery of CCL25 as part of the DNA vaccine strategy to boost systemic and mucosal immune responses following intramuscular injection.
There have been encouraging results for the development of an effective HIV vaccine. However, many questions remain regarding the quality of immune responses and the role of mucosal antibodies. We addressed some of these issues by using a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) DNA vaccine adjuvanted with plasmid-expressed mucosal chemokines combined with an intravaginal SIV challenge in rhesus macaque (RhM) model. We previously reported on the ability of CCR9 and CCR10 ligand (L) adjuvants to enhance mucosal and systemic IgA and IgG in small animals. In this study, RhMs were intramuscularly immunized five times with either DNA or DNA plus chemokine adjuvant delivered by electroporation followed by challenge with SIVsmE660. Sixty-eight percent of all vaccinated animals (P=0.0016) remained either uninfected or had aborted infection compared to only 14% in the vaccine naïve group. The highest protection was observed in the CCR10L chemokines group, where 6 of 9 animals had aborted infection and two remained uninfected, leading to 89% protection (P=0.0003). The induction of mucosal SIV-specific antibodies and neutralization titers correlated with trends in protection. These results indicate the need to further investigate the contribution of chemokine adjuvants to modulate immune responses and the role of mucosal antibodies in SIV/HIV protection.
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