The increasing demand for monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)

S almonellosis caused by either Salmonella enterica or S. bongori (Popoff, Bockemühl, & Gheesling, 2004; WHO, 2018), is an important zoonotic infection that is common to humans and a wide range of animals (Herikstad, Motarjemi, & Tauxe, 2002). The pathogen comprises a broad pathogenic serovars capable of causing varying levels of illnesses in humans and animals depending on the infecting serotype, age as well as the immune status of the patient (Ala'din, 2004). Salmonella infections is considered one of the major causes of diarrhoeal diseases globally and although most cases are mild and occasionally self-resolving, life-threatening clinical illness is common (Ala' din, 2004). Two of the most common clinical spectrum of the disease are gastroenteritis and typhoid fever. The disease is also considered an important foodborne illness with significant public health ramification (Fluit, 2005). Salmonellosis is considered the most frequent foodborne zoonosis in more developed and less developed countries. It is also associated with many other disease syndromes; including septicaemia, acute and chronic enteritis (Sherrill, 2018). The importance of salmonellosis as a human disease is continuously gaining relevance due to rapid changes in the epidemiological trends and the emergence of strains which are resistant to the commonly used chemotherapeutic agents (Kemal, 2014; Salihu, et al., 2015). The increase in the proportion of outbreaks from consumption of meat and meat products, as well as fresh vegetables has resulted in a proportionately similar increase in the number of human incidents. Food is the most important vehicle that transmits the microorganisms to human (Varnam, 1991), review Article Abstract | Salmonellosis is reported as one of the main cause of diarrhoeal diseases globally. The disease is also associated with enteric fever, including typhoid which is a potentially fatal systemic illness bedeviling many developing countries. The disease is estimated to affect nearly 17 million people with over 150,000 deaths occurring annually. Salmonellosis is also beginning to emerge as a foodborne infection characterized by significant economic and public health hazard with global ramifications. High prevalence of the disease is directly related to poor sanitation and hygiene, consumption and use of unsafe water, overcrowding and social unrest. A significant number of Iraqis are affected annually with a death rate of 10-20 %, mainly resulting from limited access to fresh water and improper sewage disposal into the river bodies. This review provides an overview of Salmonella infection in human and animals, with emphasis on the economic and public health burden of the disease in Iraq.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have proven to be effective biological reagents in the immunodiagnostic assays. This is due to their binding accuracy to many pathogens, thus, making them valuable research tools. Since the discovery of hybridoma technology by Kohler and Milstein, the use of monoclonal antibodies produced by the hybrid cells have been employed in diagnosis of several diseases. Monoclonal antibody production has several procedures with considerable variations, but the principles remain the same. Improvements in the field of cell culture technology have led to the production of improved qualities of monoclonal antibodies. In general, these antibodies are important biomedical reagents used in research, especially in the field of laboratory diagnostics for a number of different types of diseases in humans and animals. Some of the areas where application of monoclonal antibodies triumph are herein discussed. This review is aimed to assess various diagnostic assay techniques where monoclonal antibodies are applied in order to provide a first-hand information, especially for beginners in monoclonal antibody production, characterisation, evaluation and /or its applications in research and diagnosis.

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Many modern-day diagnostic tests for parasitic diseases rely on conventional labour-intensive technologies such as serology and microscopy. Although major advances have been recorded in the diagnosis of infectious diseases in humans, parasitic diseases continue to present challenges, particularly in resource-poor countries, and this is mainly attributable to war and famine. Factors such as poverty, deteriorated health facilities and destruction of infrastructure are the consequence of the lack of suitable sanitary practices and proper hygiene, especially in refugee camps, that adversely promote infectious diseases to migrants, particularly among vulnerable children. Generally, the gastrointestinal tract is the predilection site for most helminths and protozoa. They are therefore regarded as a serious public-health problem, as they cause malabsorption, malnutrition and blood loss, leading to anaemia or even death. In addition to their health effects, parasitic infections cause physical and mental impairment in children, retard their educational achievements and hinder economic development.