An inflammatory process may be involved in nitric oxide production in skeletal muscle of type 2 diabetic patients. Nitric oxide generation in skeletal muscle was assessed in 14 non-complicated type 2 diabetic patients and in 12 healthy subjects. In samples of quadriceps femoris muscle, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitrite, nitrate and nitrotyrosine were determined. The macrophage-specific antigen CD163, the T-cell membrane factor CD154 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were also assayed. In six patients, ultrastructural analysis of muscle was performed. Nitrites and nitrates were increased in patients as compared to controls (22.7+/-4.5 and 32.7+/-7.0 vs 16.0+/-2.9 and 22.8+/-4.0 micromol/mg protein; P<0.001, Mann-Whitney U test). Endothelial NOS was similar in diabetic and control subjects (36.4+/-13.8 vs 36.3+/-6.8 ng/mg protein), contrasting with the significant increase of iNOS recorded in patients (34.3+/-13.0 vs 8.5+/-2.8 ng/mg protein, P<0.00002). Nitrotyrosine levels were higher in the patient than in the control group (42.1+/-24.4 vs 10.3+/-2.5 ng/mg protein, P<0.00002), as were CD163 (10-fold) and TNF-alpha (fourfold) levels. Furthermore, CD154 levels were detectable only in the patient samples (10.2+/-5.3 ng/mg protein). By multiple-regression analysis, changes in glycated haemoglobin values could predict 96% variation in nitrotyrosine. Macrophages were present in all muscle samples analysed by electromicroscopy. The increased levels of CD163, CD154 and TNF-alpha indicate that an inflammatory process occurs in skeletal muscle of type 2 diabetic patients. This may contribute to iNOS induction, muscle damage and insulin resistance.

Perspective besides having a number of fundamental biological functions (signaling, cell proliferation, diff erentiation, and cell adhesion). 1 Th e rhamnose-rich regions of pectin chains enhance molecular interactions between cells and the polysaccharide, while the branched galactose-rich hairy regions promote the formation of entangled structures. 3 From a functional viewpoint, pectin is a hydrocolloid, namely a substance capable of trapping water and forming gels at low concentration. Being soluble in water and thanks to its excellent health and safety profi le, pectin is widely used for adding a desirable texture to food and beverages. In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority recognized the scientifi c validity of nutrition and health claims regarding pectin as a nutritional supplement in the reduction of post-prandial glycemic responses and the maintenance of normal blood cholesterol concentrations. It also increases satiety leading to a reduction in energy intake. 4Abstract: Pectin is a natural product of central importance in the emerging biorefi nery that uses fruit waste as a raw material. Generally obtained from lemon peel or from apple pomace, pectin is mainly used as a thickener and a stabilizer in the food industry. Due to its unique chemical properties and biochemical activity, however, its use is growing in many other sectors. Providing a unifi ed view of the main research and utilization trends, this study identifi es open opportunities toward larger scale production of a valued biopolymer that, we argue, will shortly emerge as a central product of the biorefi nery, and of the citrus-based biorefi nery in particular.

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In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) the presence of systemic inflammation has been associated with peripheral muscle abnormalities and weight loss.To study whether inflammatory factors are important in these processes, the present study compared the skeletal muscle levels of nitrite, nitrate, nitrotyrosine, neuronal, endothelial and inducible nitric oxide synthases (nNOS, eNOS, and iNOS, respectively), and inflammatory markers (tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-a, CD154 and CD163) in 15 patients (forced expiratory volume in one second 43¡11%) and 14 controls. All these markers were also compared between patients with normal and low body weight.Nitrite ( controls. Similar levels of all these markers were observed in COPD patients with normal and low body weight.In conclusion, these findings suggest the presence of an inflammatory process in the muscle tissue of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients, and argue in favour of its participation in the pathogenesis of skeletal muscle abnormalities.

In the early 2000s, the expectations about bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria (LABs) were aimed at food applications. However, the effectiveness of bacteriocins against undesirable microorganisms opened endless possibilities for innovative research. In the present review, we collected a database including 429 published papers and 245 granted patents (from 2004 to 2015). Based on bibliometric analysis, the progress of bacteriocin research in the last 11 years was discussed in detail. It was found that 164 patents were granted in 2010-2015, which is equivalent to 60% in comparison with previous years (i.e. only 81 patents were granted in [2004][2005][2006][2007][2008][2009]. Currently, the research on bacteriocins is still gaining importance. In the realm of therapeutic strategies, about a 37% of the published research was focused on biomedical applications in the last decade. This vein of research is currently seeking for alternative solutions to problems such as cancer, systemic infections, oral-care, vaginal infections, contraception and skincare. On the other hand, food preservation, bio-nanomaterial and veterinary applications represent 29%, 25% and 9%, respectively. All this technology is being applied and will surely grow in the future, since about 31% of the patents granted since 2004 are focused on the biomedical area, 29% on food preservation, 5% on veterinary use; whereas 13% and 16% correspond to patents granted on production-purification systems and recombinant proteins or molecular modifications in the producer strains. This review contributes to the analysis of recent LAB bacteriocin applications and their role in safety, quality and improvement of human health.