In plant breeding programs, qualitative and quantitative traits confer market value and, thus, constitute the basis for developing breeding criteria during crop domestication. Some traits such as high male/female fertility are advantageous in the wild and could enable the evolution of cultivated crops into invasive weeds. Other traits, e.g. sterility, are not expected to confer invasiveness. To date there has been very limited involvement in invasion risk assessment by plant breeders. Thus, in this paper we propose that trait-based selection of potential crop species be coupled with species design in the creation of a "non-invasive crop ideotype" as an avenue to reduce invasiveness during domestication. The non-invasive crop ideotype embodies the ideal characteristics for a crop to excel in cultivated environment(s) but minimizes the likelihood it will establish and spread in non-cultivated environments, constituting the underlying foundation for all breeding objectives, choice(s) of breeding methodologies, and propagation techniques for non-invasive crop release. Using ornamental (floriculture) horticultural crops as an example, we identify 10 traits to be used individually or in combination to reduce invasiveness while retaining commercial value: reduced genetic variation in propagules, slowed growth rates, non-flowering, elimination of asexual propagules, lack of pollinator rewards, non-shattering seed, non-fleshy fruits, lack of seed germination, sterility, and programmed death (apotopsis). A non-invasive crop ideotype would constitute the underlying foundation for all breeding objectives, the choice(s) of breeding methodologies, and propagation technique(s). The ideotype should be flexible and should adjust to species-and crop-specific traits to account for the intended use. For example, development of sterile cultivars may have negligible effects in reducing invasiveness if the crops spread vegetatively. A non-invasive crop ideotype may increase the direct participation of plant breeders, who are the professionals directly involved in the collection, development and release of new crops, in reducing the invasive potential of ornamental crops. Future research is required to determine the feasibility of incorporating each trait into various crops, use of classical or molecular techniques for creation of non-invasive crops, trait stability (lack of genotype × environment interaction over years and locations), consumer acceptance, and long-term viability.
The crop domestication process is examined from plant collection to product release for various junctures at which deliberate breeding, selection, and crop transformation may occur to prevent invasive potential. Four primary juncture opportunities for research on techniques and development of selection procedures for non-invasiveness include: The Plant Exploration Phase, Initial Trial Phase, Fast-Tracking Phase, Selection and Improvement Phase. Avoiding the collection of germplasm that appears weedy during plant exploration is an obvious, yet cost-effective way to reduce invasiveness in a selection program. During initial trials, comparing genotypic differences in traits related to invasiveness should allow plant breeders to identify cultivars that pose the least risk before undertaking comprehensive field trials. Genotypes with high commercial value, considered candidates for "fast-tracking", should only advance quickly to product release if they exhibit a minimum level of invasive risk, i.e., species with low dispersal capacity and that have little potential to impact ecosystems. Fast-growing taxa, those with high seed production, ones likely to be rapidly dispersed by wind, animals, water or people, and others that can significantly alter nutrient or light levels are examples of species that should not be "fast-tracked". Field trials that have typically been used to evaluate performance of genotypes across a broad range of cultivated environmental conditions need to be expanded to adequately evaluate invasive potential during the selection and improvement phase. Testing in environments that mimic conditions where introductions could naturalize is crucial, as are evaluations of competition with indigenous species. The time and resource investment needed to conduct adequate trials at this stage is potentially very high; more research is needed to ensure the trials conducted are targeting important information gaps for decision-making. Additional research is also needed to develop modeling approaches that effectively forecast long-term dynamics of introductions and to assist in developing field testing priorities. Minimizing invasive potential could significantly reduce introductions that cause inadvertent damage to landscapes and ecosystems. The strategy proposed here will require further development, especially in the context of understanding and assessing risks of pre-and post-release strategies for minimizing damage from invasive species.
Economic indexes for the production and use of improved corn of quality protein (QPM) in Mexico. To promote the extensive use of quality protein corns (QPM), schemes as kg/kg of corn could be an alternative to support its spreading. The Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) in coordination with the CIMMYT, intensified research projects which allowed the releasing of commercial hybrids and QPM corn varieties. However, joint to the characteristics of each one of the materials, it is convenient to analyze the economic implications of the use of these seeds, based on their conformation as simple hybrids, trilineal, varietals, open-pollinated varieties, because there is a potential problem of its productive capacity and quality of progeny lines; which makes it necessary to analyze the efficiency of producing hybrid seeds. This work analyzes the impact of the productivity of each progenitor on the cost of producing mexican hybrids, based on the minimum productivity level. Also, an estimate is shown of the prices the farmers are willing to pay for the improved seed of quality protein varieties.
A national quality protein maize program was initiated to develop, identify and release high yield potential quality protein maize hybrids and varieties adapted to different regions. Three-way crosses were predicted, based on 10 quality protein maize inbred lines diallel, which were evaluated at five Mexican locations during 1997. The predicted three-way crosses performance were evaluated at 11 tropical and subtropical Mexican locations during 1999. The superior group of predicted three-way crosses showed a good performance in almost all locations. They were competitive in grain yield with quality protein maize single crosses and normal commercial hybrids. The three-way quality protein maize hybrids with the best adaptation across locations were hybrids which involved tropical and subtropical inbred lines. In tropical regions the highest grain yield (10 t/ha) were obtained at Iguala, Guerrero. In subtropical regions the highest grain yield (16 t/ha) were obtained at Celaya, Guanajuato. The predicted three way hybrids are considered a good alternative for countries with tropical and subtropical climate were the use of single crosses is not common yet, because of seed production problems, with the advantage of quality protein maize character for regions where maize consumption is significant.
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