The meaning of the term 'tarka' is not clear in the modern literature on Classical Indian Philosophy. This paper will review different modern readings of this term and try to show that what the Nyāyasūtra and its classical commentaries called a 'tarka' should be understood as the following: a tarka is a cognitive act that validates a content (of a doubt or a cognition or a speech-act) by demonstrating its logical fitness or invalidates a content by demonstrating its logical unfitness. A tarka can act as a metatheory too. Generating certainty is, according to the Classical Nyāya, a job assigned to an epistemic instrument (pramān : a). It fails to do so when there arises a doubt regarding it. The moment a tarka dispels the doubt, the epistemic instrument generates certainty. Tarkas of different types will be exemplified by critically analyzing Ga _ ngeśa's applications of tarka in his magnum opus Tattvacintāman : i. These examples will clarify the definition of tarka formulated in this paper.
We perform conceptual acts throughout our daily lives; we are always judging others, guessing their intentions, agreeing or opposing their views and so on. These conceptual acts have phenomenological as well as formal richness. This paper attempts to correct the imbalance between the phenomenal and formal approaches to conceptualization by claiming that we need to shift from the usual dichotomies of cognitive science and epistemology such as the formal/empirical and the rationalist/ empiricist divides-to a view of conceptualization grounded in the Indian philosophical notion of "valid cognition". Methodologically, our paper is an attempt at cross-cultural philosophy and cognitive science; ontologically, it is an attempt at marrying the phenomenal and the formal.
Brahmānanda Sarasvatī has written an elaborate comment on the following inference cited in Advaitasiddhi: attribute etc. are identical to and different from attributee etc. since they are co-referential. There he wants to prove that every significant case of attribution (such as 'x [is] y') is a case of identity that coexists with a difference between two demarcators (upalakṣaṇa). The identity that coexists with difference is called 'equality' (tādātmya). This paper will argue that in each case of equality, the realist ontology chooses either identity over difference or the reverse. In the case of 'the black pot', the realist ontology prefers difference over identity. In the case of 'the qualified object is the mere object', the same ontology prefers identity over difference. Accordingly the ontological 'entity' gets projected. This is perhaps because the realist ontology is guided by Ockham's razor and the grammatical classification of objects. Keywords tādātmya • equality • identity • difference • Brahmānanda SarasvatīPadmapāda (8 th century CE)-a direct disciple of Ś aṅkara-proposed the following definition of falsehood (mithyātva): a thing, which is neither eternally existent (sat) nor absolutely inexistent (asat), is false. An example of that is an illusory thing, which is definitely not eternally true. A round square is absolutely inexistent. According to the Non-dualist (Advaitin), i.e., an adherent of the Non-dualist system & Nirmalya Guha
Arthāpatti (postulation) does not depend on observation of pervasion or background belief. It is certain in the sense that when S cognizes P through postulation, no other epistemic instrument (pramāṇa) would invalidate P. The Naiyāyika tries to reduce postulation to anumāna and/or tarka. I shall argue that it is neither. Due to its explanatory role, one may think that postulation plays an essential role in lakṣaṇā or indication. But this too is a misconception. Both tarka and lakṣaṇā depend on observation and background knowledge. Neither of them has the epistemic certainty postulation enjoys. I think, due to its observation-independent nature and certainty, postulation can be seen as the source of the knowledge of the truths of reason.
Upanayana saṃskāra (thread ceremony), one among the Ṣoḍaṣa saṃskāras (sixteen ritual) described in Indian culture - Hindu philosophy, is the right through which a man is initiated into the vows of the guru, the Vedas (wisdom), the restrains (penance), observances, values and vicinity of God (ideals). It is an important saṃskāra performed in the crucial adolescent age of an individual, with a view to boost the physical, psychological, moral, social and spiritual life of an individual. In the present scenario, the increasing use of modern gadgets, indiscreet use of social media, inadequate moral education have resulted in lowered concentration levels, diminished memory, deteriorating practical skills besides increased stress-anxiety-depression levels in adolescents. Upanayana saṃskāra is being observed just as a symbolic ceremony in most part of the society who perform it, while only very selected few have understanding of the core intention of it as included in the ancient Indian classics. This article is an earnest attempt to briefly apprehend and analyze a few aspects of the Upanayana saṃskāra such as the season and time of performance, the age, the Kaupīna, Yagnopavita, Sandhyāvandanam, Gāyatri japa and such others and their contribution in enhancing the physical, intellectual, psychological and social wellbeing with specific reference to Indian classical Vedic literature. As Vedic literature strongly described, meaningful performance of Upanayana saṃskāra followed by regular practice of Sandhyāvandanam will not only enhance scholastic performance but also bring about comprehensive development of an individual and discipline in the society.
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