Tree plantations are widely considered a sustainable and economically feasible way to foster reforestation of degraded tropical lands. However, the greatest obstacle to their implementation is the 5-10 years period before initial returns through tree harvesting are realized. This study evaluated the feasibility of generating returns in this period by intercropping hardwood plantations with annual crops. In an agroforestry trial established in eastern Panama, the costs and revenues of intercropping five native and one exotic (Tectona grandis) tree species with three different agricultural treatments-maize-beans, pigeon pea and cassava-were assessed. All tree-crop combinations, except those with cassava, generated positive net cash flows during the first years. Over the modeled rotation period of 25 years, the agrisilvicultural systems showed up to 50 % higher net present values (NPV) than pure forestry (given a 6 % interest rate), while most tree-crop combinations exceeded the NPV of pure agriculture. T. grandis intercropped with pigeon pea showed the best economic performance. The NPVs of the agrisilvicultural systems were less sensitive to changes in costs or revenues than either pure forestry or pure agriculture. Accordingly, the final felling value required for intercropping treatments to meet the desired interest rate of 6 % was up to 90 % lower than that for pure forest plantations. This effect was strongest for native tree species, as their slower growth allowed for longer periods of intercropping. Results suggest that intercropping hardwood plantations can be an effective tool for improving financial feasibility of reforestation while providing increased food security in rural areas.
This study investigated the sustainability challenges and the adoption of sustainability innovations along the value chain of flowering potted plants supplying the German market. Data was collected through eighteen in-depths interviews with chain actors from different stages of the value chain and analyzed through qualitative content analysis. The material flow of the value chain begins at the breeding level followed by the propagation level. Cuttings are produced mostly in African countries, rooted cuttings and potted plants are cultivated in Europe. The main environmental challenges include water scarcity, pesticide use and carbon footprint. Social challenges in Africa include low wages and difficult working conditions. In Germany, social challenges include recruitment and retention of employees and product transparency. Economic challenges include profitability and the need to comply with standards. Sustainability driven innovations can address some sustainability challenges. However, their implementation often leads to increased costs, financial risk and complexity of implementation. Furthermore, the lack of product transparency prevents the transfer of sustainability costs to the consumer by offering a sustainable product for a premium price. Business-to-business standards have generally had a positive influence on the adoption of sustainability innovations. But by setting certification as an entry barrier for suppliers, retailers have become more powerful chain actors.
What is already known on this subject? • European studies focused on supply chain management and logistics of floriculture. Value-adding activities and processes of flowering plants supplying the German market have not been investigated.
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